Why Chinese Buddhists are Vegetarian
Original Chinese Language
Source Article: By Cao Wenbin & Chen Shenglei
(Translated by Adrian Chan-Wyles PhD)
(Translated by Adrian Chan-Wyles PhD)
Before the introduction of Buddhism into China, India
already possessed a developed vegetarian doctrine, however, despite the fact
that the Buddha emphasised a vegetarian (or vegan) diet, this was not strictly
enforced at the time amongst his followers.
This is why, during the earliest phase of the spread of Buddhism
throughout India, the principle of vegetarianism, although present, was not
emphasised, and the eating of meat not strictly forbidden. It is correct to say that the embracing of a
strict vegetarian diet is part of the Han Dynasty development of a distinctly
‘Chinese’ Buddhist interpretation and practice.
This is where the development of the Chinese vegetarian Buddhist
tradition begins. This is the product of
a correct interpretation of the Buddhist teachings, coupled with the diverse
and sophisticated social and historical conditions prevalent at the time.
We can start by assessing the content of the Buddhist sutras in China, and from this build a picture of how the theory of vegetarianism became an integral part of the Chinese Buddhist tradition, and consider how the former is a reflection of the latter. Generally speaking, the idea of vegetarianism within the Buddhist sutras is premised upon the forbidding of the act of killing; a theme that recurs throughout the Buddhist teachings. This position is augmented by the requirement for the development of compassion for the welfare of all beings, as a fundamental Buddhist practice, and the four philosophical aspects associated with the theory of reincarnation.
1) Principle of Not Killing. This is the primary basis of Chinese Buddhist practice of vegetarianism. The principle (and practice) of ‘non-killing’ is both closely and directly linked to the maintaining of a vegetarian diet, as the eating of meat fuels the industrialised slaughterhouses and justifies and encourages killing. This idea is commonly expressed within the Buddhist teachings, for example, in Chapter Eight of the Lankavatara Sutra it states:
‘If all beings did not eat meat, then no one would be encouraged to kill other living beings. If all beings everywhere did not eat meat, and did not try to beg or buy meat, this would put an end to the meat industry and the incentive to kill for profit. As purchasing encourages the killing of meat, there is no difference between the buyer of meat, and those who kill for profit.’
Chapter Six of the Lankavatara says:
‘Killing for human food consumption encourages slaughter. If people did not eat meat, the killing of animals would stop. Therefore both eating meat and killing meat constitute the same crime.’
Therefore, within Chinese Buddhist thought, the act of eating meat is considered exactly the same as the act of taking life, with no karmic difference between the two situations. The consumption of meat is considered an act of indirect killing. This is why the Chinese Buddhist tradition teaches that only the following of a vegetarian diet will prevent this karmic association from arising. We can say, therefore, that killing is the practical problem which is resolved through theory and practice of vegetarianism. Vegetarianism is a strong guarantee against the highly negative act of killing.
2) Principle of Compassion. In the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, there is a section where the Buddha explains the practice of vegetarianism as part of the generation of a compassionate mind:
'The Buddha said: Good man, in all beings the thought of self relates to a great compassion which should be cultivated by the practice of the non-generation of murderous thoughts in the mind. This is how an Arhant acquires a mind that is equal everywhere. The Buddha has never taught anything different, and it should not be stated that he has taught the opposite to this. In the past, there was a great hunting master named Rajagriha who once killed a herd of deer as an offering to myself. He invited me to eat his offering – and I accepted. However, in my mind there was the continuous generation of compassion and loving kindness.’
The Mahayana Buddhism sutras explicitly emphasis the generation of compassion through the non-eating of meat. This is why the Han Dynasty interpretation of Buddhism embraced the concept of compassion, and urged its adherents not to kill, not to injure living beings, and banned the consumption of all meat. The Mahaparinirvana Sutra states:
‘When an individual eats meat, the smell of meat emanates outward whether walking, standing, sitting, or lying down. People smell the corrupt aroma of this meat and become terrorised and fearful for their lives.’
To stop the emanation of this bad and corrupt smell of eat, a vegetarian diet should be embraced by the Buddha’s disciples. Chinese Buddhism, as it developed during the Han Dynasty, emphasised compassion toward all living beings. The concept of compassion, when generated within the mind, creates the conditions for the development of good intentions toward all beings, and the effective guarding and maintenance of pure thought.
3) Purpose of Self-Cultivation. The transmission of Han Dynasty Chinese Buddhist thought, recognises that the act of eating meat destroys the conditions for the generation of compassion in the human mind, and as an act, is contradictory to the Buddha’s teaching upon compassion. This is because ‘monks and nuns know that all meat is unclean’, and that to consume it is a great error. Those who eat meat cannot be successful in their self-cultivation, and cannot attain to the state of nirvana, and cannot generate positive karmic-fruit. Chapter Eight of the Lankavatara Sutra, explains why meat-eating diminishes the capability to generate compassion in an even clearer manner:
‘Those who eat meat damage my turning of the Wheel of the Dharma, and render sagely beings extinct, all this happens due to meat eating. Therefore, with great wisdom do my disciples protect the Triple Gem from those evil persons who would slander it. They understand that in life they should not even read or think about meat, as well as never eat it.’
Does this mean, then, that thinking about meat is as bad as eating meat? Yes it does, as those devoted to the Dharma cultivate compassion through the following of a vegetarian diet, and in so doing strengthen Chinese Buddhism and the effectiveness of its practice.
4) Doctrine of Reincarnation.
a) Han Dynasty Chinese Buddhism emphasised the ‘doctrine of continuous rebirth’ (samsara) to justify a strict vegetarian diet. For instance, in Volume IV of the Surangama Sutra it states:
‘When people eat a sheep (that has been killed), the sheep will be reborn as a human (as a karmic effect), and when those people who have eaten the sheep die, they will be reborn as a sheep (also as a karmic effect). Therefore, beings in the ten states of birth continuously eat one another’s flesh and thereby generate highly negative karma throughout all of time.’
In Chapter Eight of the Lankavatara Sutra it presents (in great detail) the fact that sentient beings experience a continuous rotation of life and death, and how we have all been one another’s parents, and one another’s sons and daughters. This is as well as all beings having been one another’s partners at different times, and friends and relatives, etc. Knowing this to be true, it is incomprehensible that we should use one another as food. This is why Chinese Buddhism of the Han Dynasty advocates vegetarianism so as to ensure a good rebirth.
b) A long time before the introduction of Indian Buddhism into China, it is correct to say that China already possessed a very well developed culture pertaining to vegetarianism, and that this had a profound effect upon the development and practice of Buddhism within China. A distinct vegetarian tradition emerged very early on in Chinese history, and was premised upon the concepts of ‘support, assist, increase, fill’, and the dietary regimen that promoted the eating of the ‘five grains for Support, and the five fruits for Assistance.’ This doctrine is recorded in the famous medical text known in China as the ‘Yellow Emperor’s Internal Classic’, which later influenced the thinking of Laozi and Zhuangzi – particularly with regard to the Daoist philosophical concept of ‘non-action’. This led to the appearance of hermit-scholars who had a strong respect for nature, and who believed that the eating of meat created bad energy (qi) within the body and mind (thus hindering effective self-cultivation). Their answer was very clear as it advocated the following of a strict vegetarian diet for spiritual development, and this idea (and practice) become prevalent throughout China. However, this hermit-scholar vegetarian ethos did not penetrate very deeply into the lives of ordinary Chinese people, but was mostly seen through its influence on the development of Daoist thought and practice, where it has had a tremendous impact. Daoist rules specify that killing must be given-up, and a vegetarian diet followed without exception. Indications that this is the correct path to follow, abound within the Daoist texts. An example of this is found in the Daoist book entitled the ‘Grand On High Lord Lao Moral Discipline Classic’, which states:
‘All sentient beings without exception possess lifeforce (qi) - even those that soar in the sky or wiggle on the ground – therefore it is important never to kill any category of life… Killing sentient beings only profits the cultivation of the mouth (as killing other beings whilst training in self–cultivation is harmful and contradictory), in this way the (present) generation should understand that those that train in this way will forever suffer bitterness and pain.’
The Liang Dynasty Emperor Wudi said (in his book entitled ‘Cut Wine and Meat Text’) that Buddhist monks who drink wine and eat meat are behaving contrary to the teachings of the Buddha, and are even morally inferior to followers of other religions. In fact, so shameful is it for a Buddhist monk or nun to drink wine and eat meat, that many lay people living the family life, have a better and more morally upright existence. In fact Emperor Liang Wudi states in the above text that:
‘Nine were inferior to non-Buddhist sects – and nine were inferior to lay people living at home.’
He does not specify which non-Buddhist sects he is discussing, but from the time of the writing, it is probable that he is referring to the Daoist School. This is because that in the period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties, Buddhism was in competition with Daoism. The Liang Wudi Emperor was concerned about Daoism, because this was the path he devoutly followed prior to his conversion to Buddhism. After becoming a Buddhist, the Emperor still had regular contact with famous Daoists, and was well aware that Daoists did not eat meat - which he equated with the fact that the Han Dynasty Chinese Buddhist ordination rules also forbid the eating of meat. Not only were the two proscriptions the same, but the purposes and intentions of both developmental paths were also very similar. Daoism is China’s native religion, and is an important part of China’s traditional culture. This might well explain why the Han Dynasty Chinese Buddhism also emphasised non-meat eating in its ordination process. This is understandable, because Daoist tradition and general Chinese cultural heritage have a close association.
c) The Han Dynasty Chinese Buddhist tradition actuated a very strong practice with regards to the practice of vegetarianism, a practice that has been vigorously followed by every dynasty since. This was particularly true of both Emperor Liang Wudi during the Northern and Southern Dynasty period, as well as Emperor Xuandi of the Northern Qi Dynasty period – both of whom greatly advocated non-killing, non-meat eating (and wine drinking), and the strict following of a vegetarian diet. Throughout Chinese history, however, it is the edict of the Emperor Liang Wudi - stating that all Buddhists should strictly follow the vegetarian tradition (as established for Buddhist practice during the Han Dynasty) – which had the maximum effect, and which is more readily remembered within Chinese culture today. Emperor Liang Wudi was a devout Buddhist who ensured that the ordained Sangha strictly followed the vegetarian (and non-drinking of wine) diet as established during the Han Dynasty. Scholars generally agree that in 511 CE, the Emperor Liang Wudi wrote that the Buddhist Sangha should exclusively adopt a diet that ‘cuts wine and meat’ consumption entirely. This instruction marks the Buddhist Sangha’s initial abandonment of meat eating. According to historical records, the Emperor Liang Wudi presided over two Buddhist councils regarding this matter, and issued five edicts to secure its practice within the Sangha. To achieve the success of ‘cutting wine and meat’ - he cited a number of Buddhist texts – the most important of which is the ‘Mahaparinirvana Sutra’. He believed that as the Han Dynasty Chinese Buddhist texts clearly forbid the drinking of wine and the eating of meat, then Buddhist monks should not pursue these habits, and that to do so, is incompatible with true Dharma practice. At the time, Emperor Liang Wudi noted that even within ordinary lay society, many people had started to switch from sacrificing animals during religious rituals, two making vegetarian offerings. This change of habit nationally inspired the devout Buddhist Emperor to reform the Sangha and to institutionally abolish meat eating altogether. However, some monks questioned this edict, stating that although some Buddhist sutras do advocate a vegetarian diet, the Vinaya Discipline does not specifically out-law meat-eating. In the text entitled the ‘Broad Great Bright Collection’ it records:
‘The Way of the Monk: In the Vinaya Discipline, there is no specific proscription against eating meat whilst practicing the Dharma; nor is there any requirement to ‘repent’ after eating meat, whilst following the Dharma. As the Vinaya Discipline masters always use this teaching as a guide, this has made ordinary people doubt.’
This issue was resolved after studying the Buddhist Sutras and locating the advice forbidding the eating of meat. Therefore, the Emperor Liang Wudi, whilst issuing his edict banning the Sangha from drinking wine and eating meat, quoted from the Mahayana text entitled the ‘Brahmajala Sutra’, and stated that the Buddhist authority for such an edict stemmed primarily from the ‘Bodhisattva Precepts’ contain therein. In the 18th year of the reign of Tian Jian (519-20 CE) – also known as Wudi – the following imperial edict was issued:
‘Ordained Buddhist Monastics will be subject to the Bodhisattva Moral Law.’
This edict clearly forbid the drinking of wine and the eating of meat for Buddhist monastics, whilst referencing Buddhist texts. This was a very popular transformation premised upon the Brahmajala Sutra, and the abandoning of wine drinking and meat eating was quickly established as a tradition within Chinese Buddhist practice.
The Emperor Liang Wudi’s reforms in the south of China, can be compared to similar reforms developed during the Northern Qi Dynasty - under Emperor Wen Xuandi – which also saw a great campaign forbidding killing, and advocating of the adoption of a vegetarian diet. The Northern Qi Dynasty was established in 550 CE by the Gao clan, and saw the rapid establishment and development of Buddhism in the north of China, together with the ‘resurgence’ of a good reputation. According to volume 10 of the text entitled ‘Continuation of the Eminent Monk Transmission’, it states:
‘During the time of the Northern Qi of the Gao clan, Buddhism experienced a resurgence. This was achieved through the building of 4000 temples, housing Buddhist monks and nuns numbering around 80,000, and there was 200 Buddhist lecturers attracting audiences of 10,000 lay people or more. In all things there was abundance, and respect was returned to the nation.’
The Northern Qi Dynasty Emperor exhibited an extraordinary enthusiasm and respect for Buddhism; for instance, he paid ritualistic respect to the monastics, he rewarded sutra translations, he established pagodas, he widely built Buddha statues, and he had the Buddhist sutras engraved on stone tablets. In the second year of his reign (551 CE), the Emperor Wen Xuandi (also known as Tianbao), announced that he would perform acts of Buddhist kindness and had captured animals released, towers built, and temples constructed. It was also recorded that:
‘He revered loving kindness as a means to brighten and transform the entire world, and made it self-evident that virtue and enlightenment share the same essence. All pet hunting birds that took life for human sport were returned to the remote mountains to live freely. He sponsored a pagoda in the name of the empress Dowager, and abandoned corruption, emphasising instead masters of virtue in the temple.’
Across the country killing was discouraged and Buddhist morality emphasised so that drinking wine and eating meat was banned. In volume 8 of the ‘Continuation of the Eminent Monk Transmission’ it states:
‘Meat-eating and alcohol drinking was banned, and hunting birds were released back into the wild. He abolished fishing and hunting for the officials, and in this way the country became beautiful through its benevolence, as the practice of slaughter ceased under all of the divine-sky (i.e. China). During a six year period, three imperial edicts were issued ordering the people of China to fast, and the imperial government officially sanctioned the growing of fruit and vegetables in royal gardens; a policy designed to replace the necessity of eating bitter-tasting meat.’
Volume 16 of the text entitled ‘Continuation of the Eminent Monk Transmission’, (quoting the text entitled ‘Northern Qi Book – Emperor Wen Xuandi Source of History’) states that in a three year period, the Emperor Wen Xuandi issued three imperial edicts forbidding killing and ordering that vegetarian diets should be followed, as a means to cultivate and manifest a pure mind.
The Emperor Wen Xuandi propagated the vegetarian ideal, the theoretical basis of which he gained from the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, particularly with regard to ‘meat-eating being banned through the practice of loving kindness and compassion. During the Northern Qi Dynasty animals were set free, killing ceased, meat eating stopped, and the instigation of vegetarianism was far-reaching in both practice and effect. However, as the Northern Qi Dynasty inherited its political power as the product of a nomadic ethnic minority (the ‘Xian Bei’) invasion of China, and according to the feudal thinking of the time, its history was not considered orthodox, and so the history of Emperor Liang Wudi (in the south of China) is better known. In the past this meant that the historical records of the Northern Qi Dynasty were difficult to find in China’s official historical narrative, which only recorded the details of the southern ‘Chinese’ Liang Dynasty (and other southern regimes). This is why few people know about the Buddhist inspired vegetarian movement established in the north of China. In the final analysis, it can be correctly stated that the southern Liang Dynasty and the Northern Qi Dynasty both contributed equally to the development of China’s distinct Buddhist vegetarian culture that has endured for over a thousand years.
(Editor: Peng Fengping)
©opyright: Adrian Chan-Wyles (ShiDaDao) 2015.
Original Chinese Language Source Text:
http://www.mzb.com.cn/html/Home/node/388580-1.htm
中国汉传佛教素食传统形成的原因
Authors: 曹文斌 陈升磊
在佛教传入中国之前,印度有戒杀的传统。不过,佛陀虽然强调不杀生,但对于素食并没有严格的要求。佛教在印度流传的初期,也并没有禁断肉食的要求。可以说,素食是中国汉传佛教的特色。中国汉传佛教素食传统的形成,是由佛教经籍的内在要求和当时复杂的社会历史条件所决定的。
我们首先可以从中国佛教经籍的内在要求入手来探讨中国汉传佛教素食的理论依据。素食的要求在佛教经籍中较为多见,概括来说,可以归结为戒杀原则、慈悲理念、修行目的、轮回学说等四个方面。
1.戒杀原则。这是中国汉传佛教素食主义的首要依据。戒杀与素食密切相关,因为食肉间接上是导致杀业存在的原因。对于二者的关系,佛教经文中有表述,如《入楞伽经》卷八说:“若一切人不食肉者,亦无有人杀害众生。由人食肉若无可食处处求买,为财利者杀以贩卖,为买者杀。是故买者与杀无异。”卷六说:“凡杀生者多为人食,人若不食,亦无杀事,是故食肉与杀同罪。”由此,中国汉传佛教认为,食肉就是间接杀生,只有实行素食才是唯一的戒杀办法,中国汉传佛教的素食实践正是为解决这一矛盾而产生的。可以说,戒杀原则是素食的直接理论依据,素食则是落实戒杀原则的一个有力保证。
2.慈悲理念。《大般涅槃经》中有一段佛陀阐述素食出于慈悲心的话:“佛言:善男子,言我想者。谓于众生,生大悲心,无杀害想,谓阿罗汉平等之心,勿谓世尊无有因缘而逆说也。昔日于此王舍城中有大猎师,多杀群鹿请我食肉,我于是时虽受彼请,于诸众生,生慈悲心。”以慈悲为怀的大乘佛教经籍明文指出不得食一切众生肉,因此中国汉传佛教从慈悲理念出发,力倡不杀生、不伤害众生,进而禁绝肉食。《大般涅槃经》中说:“其食肉者,若行若住若坐若卧,一切众生闻其肉气悉生恐怖。”意思是说,为了不致众生闻到食肉之人的气味而感到害怕,因此要求佛家弟子实行素食。中国汉传佛教在同情、关怀和怜悯众生的慈悲理念方面,可谓用心良苦。
3.修行目的。中国汉传佛教认为,食肉的人会断灭慈悲心,这与佛教培养修习慈悲心的目的格格不入。由于“凡是肉食,于出家人悉是不净”是佛教大忌,因而食肉无法达到佛教涅槃的修行境界,不能修成正果。《入楞伽经》卷八就较为明确地阐述了食肉断大慈种的原因:“断我法轮绝灭圣种,一切皆由食肉者过。是故大慧,我弟子者,为护恶人毁谤三宝,乃至不应生念肉想,何况食肉。”意思是说,即使产生了食肉的念头也于慈悲修行不利,更何况食肉?这种修行观念极大地强化了中国汉传佛教的素食实践。
4.轮回学说。中国汉传佛教还从“生死轮回说”上阐明了素食的理由。如《楞严经》卷四说:“以人食羊,羊死为人,人死为羊。如是乃至十生之类,死死生生互来相啖,恶业俱生穷未来际。”而《入楞伽经》卷八中,详细地谈到了众生生生死死,轮转不息,曾经都是父母兄弟,男女眷属,乃至朋友亲戚,不能忍心取食之。轮回学说有力地支持了中国汉传佛教的素食主张。
二
早在佛教传入中国以前,中国就存在素食文化,这种素食文化对中国汉传佛教必然会产生重要的影响。
中国素食传统来自于很早就出现的“养、助、益、充”的饮食观念,提倡“五谷为养、五果为助”,这在中国著名的医学经典著作《黄帝内经》中有详细记载。此后,受老庄清静无为哲学思想的影响,出现了一大批隐逸的文人,他们崇尚自然,认为吃肉使人气浊,而吃素使人气清,因而极力奉行素食。不过,隐逸文人的素食风气,对中国民间的影响相对较小,真正对中国素食传统形成巨大影响的,是道教文化。
道教倡导戒杀和素食,其戒条在道教经典中比比皆是,如《太上老君戒经》说:“一切众生,含气以上翔飞蠕动之类皆不得杀……杀害众生利养身口(杀生治病为养身,宰害供厨为利口也),如此等辈见(现)生受业永坠诸苦。”梁武帝在《断酒肉文》中也说,佛教僧侣饮酒食肉的作风,不仅有悖于佛教教旨教义,而且在这方面与其他出家人(外道)相比甚为汗颜,其行甚至不如在家人。梁武帝在文中列举了“九不及外道”和“九不及居家人”,虽然并没有指明是何教派,但是根据当时的历史环境,可以推测出这应该就是指道教。因为在南北朝时期,与佛教竞争最激烈的宗教就是道教,梁武帝最在意的也是道教,这是因为梁武帝在皈依佛教之前,曾经是一个虔诚的道教徒,和当时的道教名流常相往来。
道教断肉戒荤的主张,与汉传佛教禁断荤腥戒,不但内容相同,其用心与目的也非常近似。道教是中国土生土长的宗教,是构成中国传统文化的重要组成部分,中国汉传佛教的禁荤腥戒,应该和这种道教传统(或者说中国文化传统)有着密切的关系。
三
中国汉传佛教的素食传统还有一个最重要的外在力量促动,即历代帝王对素食的极力推行。这里主要介绍南北朝时期的梁武帝和北齐文宣帝发起的大规模戒杀、断肉、食素运动。
在中国历史上,对于中国汉传佛教素食戒律的形成影响最大的事件首推梁武帝下令禁断酒肉。梁武帝是中国历史上著名的虔诚佛教徒,中国汉传佛教的僧伽之所以全面素食,从而形成了独具中国汉传佛教特色的素食传统,学界大体都认为是梁武帝要求佛教僧团“禁断酒肉”事件所促成,其标志即公元511年他亲撰旨在推动佛教僧团禁断肉食的《断酒肉文》。
据该文记载,梁武帝为推动禁断酒肉,曾亲自主持了两次法会,颁布了五道敕文。他在《断酒肉文》中引用了各种佛教经论,其中最主要的是《大般涅槃经》,以说明禁断酒肉的理由。他认为在中国汉传佛教经籍中既然已经规定不得食肉,但是出家人却仍有饮酒食肉的习惯,这与经籍中的素食要求是格格不入的。且就当时的民间信仰而言,在祭祀中也已经开始采用素食供品,这都使身为虔诚佛教徒的梁武帝下定决心开展断酒肉运动。然而梁武帝禁断酒肉的主张,也有僧伽质疑,认为禁断酒肉一说并没有戒律上的依据,仅仅只是经籍要求如此。《广弘明集》中记载:“僧道:律中无有断肉法,又无忏悔食肉法。诸律师从来作若为开导,使人致有此疑。”为彻底解决经籍中有断肉一说而戒律中却无此规定的问题,梁武帝以含有禁断酒肉规定的大乘律典——《梵网经》中的菩萨戒为根据,于天监十八年(520)敕写了《出家人受菩萨戒法》,从而明确了禁断酒肉的戒律来源。随着《梵网经》菩萨戒法的风行,梁武帝也就成功地推动了禁断酒肉的素食运动。
与梁武帝差不多同时代的北齐文宣帝,也曾经进行了长时间、大规模的戒杀断肉的素食运动。公元550年,北齐高氏政权建立,当时佛教的发展非常迅速,有“中兴”之誉。据《续高僧传》卷十记载:“属高齐之盛,佛教中兴。都下大寺,略记四千。见住僧尼,仅将八万。讲席相距二百有余,在众常听出过一万。故宇内英杰咸归厥邦。”北齐皇帝对佛教表现出异乎寻常的热情:礼敬僧人、奖励译经、建立塔寺、广造佛像、刻凿经典。天保二年(551),文宣帝为报佛恩,下诏放生、造塔、建寺:“仰惟慈明缉宁四海,欲报之德,正觉是凭。诸鹫鸟伤生之类,宜放于山林。即以此地为太皇太后经营宝塔,废鹰师曹为报德寺。”(《续高僧传》卷八)后又在全国推行戒杀、断酒、禁肉:“断酒禁肉,放舍鹰鹞,去官畋渔,郁成仁国。又断天下屠杀。越六年,三敕民斋戒,官园私菜荤辛悉除。”(《续高僧传》卷十六)此后三年,文宣帝又连续三次下诏戒杀蔬食,其心之诚,可见一斑。(《北齐书·文宣帝本纪》)
而他当时推行的断肉素食运动的理论依据也直接取源于《大般涅槃经》中“食肉断慈悲种”的思想。北齐的放生、戒杀、断肉、食素运动可谓规模空前、影响深远。只是因为北齐继承的是少数民族的鲜卑族政权,在当时封建社会的正统思想下,不仅见诸于文字记载的史料不多,就是在对后世的影响方面,也远不及梁武帝的素食运动,以致鲜少有人知道这么一段历史。可以说,梁与北齐一南一北,共同促进了中国汉传佛教僧人特有的素食传统,在一定程度上影响了此后中国一千多年的佛教文化。
(编辑:彭凤平)
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We can start by assessing the content of the Buddhist sutras in China, and from this build a picture of how the theory of vegetarianism became an integral part of the Chinese Buddhist tradition, and consider how the former is a reflection of the latter. Generally speaking, the idea of vegetarianism within the Buddhist sutras is premised upon the forbidding of the act of killing; a theme that recurs throughout the Buddhist teachings. This position is augmented by the requirement for the development of compassion for the welfare of all beings, as a fundamental Buddhist practice, and the four philosophical aspects associated with the theory of reincarnation.
1) Principle of Not Killing. This is the primary basis of Chinese Buddhist practice of vegetarianism. The principle (and practice) of ‘non-killing’ is both closely and directly linked to the maintaining of a vegetarian diet, as the eating of meat fuels the industrialised slaughterhouses and justifies and encourages killing. This idea is commonly expressed within the Buddhist teachings, for example, in Chapter Eight of the Lankavatara Sutra it states:
‘If all beings did not eat meat, then no one would be encouraged to kill other living beings. If all beings everywhere did not eat meat, and did not try to beg or buy meat, this would put an end to the meat industry and the incentive to kill for profit. As purchasing encourages the killing of meat, there is no difference between the buyer of meat, and those who kill for profit.’
Chapter Six of the Lankavatara says:
‘Killing for human food consumption encourages slaughter. If people did not eat meat, the killing of animals would stop. Therefore both eating meat and killing meat constitute the same crime.’
Therefore, within Chinese Buddhist thought, the act of eating meat is considered exactly the same as the act of taking life, with no karmic difference between the two situations. The consumption of meat is considered an act of indirect killing. This is why the Chinese Buddhist tradition teaches that only the following of a vegetarian diet will prevent this karmic association from arising. We can say, therefore, that killing is the practical problem which is resolved through theory and practice of vegetarianism. Vegetarianism is a strong guarantee against the highly negative act of killing.
2) Principle of Compassion. In the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, there is a section where the Buddha explains the practice of vegetarianism as part of the generation of a compassionate mind:
'The Buddha said: Good man, in all beings the thought of self relates to a great compassion which should be cultivated by the practice of the non-generation of murderous thoughts in the mind. This is how an Arhant acquires a mind that is equal everywhere. The Buddha has never taught anything different, and it should not be stated that he has taught the opposite to this. In the past, there was a great hunting master named Rajagriha who once killed a herd of deer as an offering to myself. He invited me to eat his offering – and I accepted. However, in my mind there was the continuous generation of compassion and loving kindness.’
The Mahayana Buddhism sutras explicitly emphasis the generation of compassion through the non-eating of meat. This is why the Han Dynasty interpretation of Buddhism embraced the concept of compassion, and urged its adherents not to kill, not to injure living beings, and banned the consumption of all meat. The Mahaparinirvana Sutra states:
‘When an individual eats meat, the smell of meat emanates outward whether walking, standing, sitting, or lying down. People smell the corrupt aroma of this meat and become terrorised and fearful for their lives.’
To stop the emanation of this bad and corrupt smell of eat, a vegetarian diet should be embraced by the Buddha’s disciples. Chinese Buddhism, as it developed during the Han Dynasty, emphasised compassion toward all living beings. The concept of compassion, when generated within the mind, creates the conditions for the development of good intentions toward all beings, and the effective guarding and maintenance of pure thought.
3) Purpose of Self-Cultivation. The transmission of Han Dynasty Chinese Buddhist thought, recognises that the act of eating meat destroys the conditions for the generation of compassion in the human mind, and as an act, is contradictory to the Buddha’s teaching upon compassion. This is because ‘monks and nuns know that all meat is unclean’, and that to consume it is a great error. Those who eat meat cannot be successful in their self-cultivation, and cannot attain to the state of nirvana, and cannot generate positive karmic-fruit. Chapter Eight of the Lankavatara Sutra, explains why meat-eating diminishes the capability to generate compassion in an even clearer manner:
‘Those who eat meat damage my turning of the Wheel of the Dharma, and render sagely beings extinct, all this happens due to meat eating. Therefore, with great wisdom do my disciples protect the Triple Gem from those evil persons who would slander it. They understand that in life they should not even read or think about meat, as well as never eat it.’
Does this mean, then, that thinking about meat is as bad as eating meat? Yes it does, as those devoted to the Dharma cultivate compassion through the following of a vegetarian diet, and in so doing strengthen Chinese Buddhism and the effectiveness of its practice.
4) Doctrine of Reincarnation.
a) Han Dynasty Chinese Buddhism emphasised the ‘doctrine of continuous rebirth’ (samsara) to justify a strict vegetarian diet. For instance, in Volume IV of the Surangama Sutra it states:
‘When people eat a sheep (that has been killed), the sheep will be reborn as a human (as a karmic effect), and when those people who have eaten the sheep die, they will be reborn as a sheep (also as a karmic effect). Therefore, beings in the ten states of birth continuously eat one another’s flesh and thereby generate highly negative karma throughout all of time.’
In Chapter Eight of the Lankavatara Sutra it presents (in great detail) the fact that sentient beings experience a continuous rotation of life and death, and how we have all been one another’s parents, and one another’s sons and daughters. This is as well as all beings having been one another’s partners at different times, and friends and relatives, etc. Knowing this to be true, it is incomprehensible that we should use one another as food. This is why Chinese Buddhism of the Han Dynasty advocates vegetarianism so as to ensure a good rebirth.
b) A long time before the introduction of Indian Buddhism into China, it is correct to say that China already possessed a very well developed culture pertaining to vegetarianism, and that this had a profound effect upon the development and practice of Buddhism within China. A distinct vegetarian tradition emerged very early on in Chinese history, and was premised upon the concepts of ‘support, assist, increase, fill’, and the dietary regimen that promoted the eating of the ‘five grains for Support, and the five fruits for Assistance.’ This doctrine is recorded in the famous medical text known in China as the ‘Yellow Emperor’s Internal Classic’, which later influenced the thinking of Laozi and Zhuangzi – particularly with regard to the Daoist philosophical concept of ‘non-action’. This led to the appearance of hermit-scholars who had a strong respect for nature, and who believed that the eating of meat created bad energy (qi) within the body and mind (thus hindering effective self-cultivation). Their answer was very clear as it advocated the following of a strict vegetarian diet for spiritual development, and this idea (and practice) become prevalent throughout China. However, this hermit-scholar vegetarian ethos did not penetrate very deeply into the lives of ordinary Chinese people, but was mostly seen through its influence on the development of Daoist thought and practice, where it has had a tremendous impact. Daoist rules specify that killing must be given-up, and a vegetarian diet followed without exception. Indications that this is the correct path to follow, abound within the Daoist texts. An example of this is found in the Daoist book entitled the ‘Grand On High Lord Lao Moral Discipline Classic’, which states:
‘All sentient beings without exception possess lifeforce (qi) - even those that soar in the sky or wiggle on the ground – therefore it is important never to kill any category of life… Killing sentient beings only profits the cultivation of the mouth (as killing other beings whilst training in self–cultivation is harmful and contradictory), in this way the (present) generation should understand that those that train in this way will forever suffer bitterness and pain.’
The Liang Dynasty Emperor Wudi said (in his book entitled ‘Cut Wine and Meat Text’) that Buddhist monks who drink wine and eat meat are behaving contrary to the teachings of the Buddha, and are even morally inferior to followers of other religions. In fact, so shameful is it for a Buddhist monk or nun to drink wine and eat meat, that many lay people living the family life, have a better and more morally upright existence. In fact Emperor Liang Wudi states in the above text that:
‘Nine were inferior to non-Buddhist sects – and nine were inferior to lay people living at home.’
He does not specify which non-Buddhist sects he is discussing, but from the time of the writing, it is probable that he is referring to the Daoist School. This is because that in the period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties, Buddhism was in competition with Daoism. The Liang Wudi Emperor was concerned about Daoism, because this was the path he devoutly followed prior to his conversion to Buddhism. After becoming a Buddhist, the Emperor still had regular contact with famous Daoists, and was well aware that Daoists did not eat meat - which he equated with the fact that the Han Dynasty Chinese Buddhist ordination rules also forbid the eating of meat. Not only were the two proscriptions the same, but the purposes and intentions of both developmental paths were also very similar. Daoism is China’s native religion, and is an important part of China’s traditional culture. This might well explain why the Han Dynasty Chinese Buddhism also emphasised non-meat eating in its ordination process. This is understandable, because Daoist tradition and general Chinese cultural heritage have a close association.
c) The Han Dynasty Chinese Buddhist tradition actuated a very strong practice with regards to the practice of vegetarianism, a practice that has been vigorously followed by every dynasty since. This was particularly true of both Emperor Liang Wudi during the Northern and Southern Dynasty period, as well as Emperor Xuandi of the Northern Qi Dynasty period – both of whom greatly advocated non-killing, non-meat eating (and wine drinking), and the strict following of a vegetarian diet. Throughout Chinese history, however, it is the edict of the Emperor Liang Wudi - stating that all Buddhists should strictly follow the vegetarian tradition (as established for Buddhist practice during the Han Dynasty) – which had the maximum effect, and which is more readily remembered within Chinese culture today. Emperor Liang Wudi was a devout Buddhist who ensured that the ordained Sangha strictly followed the vegetarian (and non-drinking of wine) diet as established during the Han Dynasty. Scholars generally agree that in 511 CE, the Emperor Liang Wudi wrote that the Buddhist Sangha should exclusively adopt a diet that ‘cuts wine and meat’ consumption entirely. This instruction marks the Buddhist Sangha’s initial abandonment of meat eating. According to historical records, the Emperor Liang Wudi presided over two Buddhist councils regarding this matter, and issued five edicts to secure its practice within the Sangha. To achieve the success of ‘cutting wine and meat’ - he cited a number of Buddhist texts – the most important of which is the ‘Mahaparinirvana Sutra’. He believed that as the Han Dynasty Chinese Buddhist texts clearly forbid the drinking of wine and the eating of meat, then Buddhist monks should not pursue these habits, and that to do so, is incompatible with true Dharma practice. At the time, Emperor Liang Wudi noted that even within ordinary lay society, many people had started to switch from sacrificing animals during religious rituals, two making vegetarian offerings. This change of habit nationally inspired the devout Buddhist Emperor to reform the Sangha and to institutionally abolish meat eating altogether. However, some monks questioned this edict, stating that although some Buddhist sutras do advocate a vegetarian diet, the Vinaya Discipline does not specifically out-law meat-eating. In the text entitled the ‘Broad Great Bright Collection’ it records:
‘The Way of the Monk: In the Vinaya Discipline, there is no specific proscription against eating meat whilst practicing the Dharma; nor is there any requirement to ‘repent’ after eating meat, whilst following the Dharma. As the Vinaya Discipline masters always use this teaching as a guide, this has made ordinary people doubt.’
This issue was resolved after studying the Buddhist Sutras and locating the advice forbidding the eating of meat. Therefore, the Emperor Liang Wudi, whilst issuing his edict banning the Sangha from drinking wine and eating meat, quoted from the Mahayana text entitled the ‘Brahmajala Sutra’, and stated that the Buddhist authority for such an edict stemmed primarily from the ‘Bodhisattva Precepts’ contain therein. In the 18th year of the reign of Tian Jian (519-20 CE) – also known as Wudi – the following imperial edict was issued:
‘Ordained Buddhist Monastics will be subject to the Bodhisattva Moral Law.’
This edict clearly forbid the drinking of wine and the eating of meat for Buddhist monastics, whilst referencing Buddhist texts. This was a very popular transformation premised upon the Brahmajala Sutra, and the abandoning of wine drinking and meat eating was quickly established as a tradition within Chinese Buddhist practice.
The Emperor Liang Wudi’s reforms in the south of China, can be compared to similar reforms developed during the Northern Qi Dynasty - under Emperor Wen Xuandi – which also saw a great campaign forbidding killing, and advocating of the adoption of a vegetarian diet. The Northern Qi Dynasty was established in 550 CE by the Gao clan, and saw the rapid establishment and development of Buddhism in the north of China, together with the ‘resurgence’ of a good reputation. According to volume 10 of the text entitled ‘Continuation of the Eminent Monk Transmission’, it states:
‘During the time of the Northern Qi of the Gao clan, Buddhism experienced a resurgence. This was achieved through the building of 4000 temples, housing Buddhist monks and nuns numbering around 80,000, and there was 200 Buddhist lecturers attracting audiences of 10,000 lay people or more. In all things there was abundance, and respect was returned to the nation.’
The Northern Qi Dynasty Emperor exhibited an extraordinary enthusiasm and respect for Buddhism; for instance, he paid ritualistic respect to the monastics, he rewarded sutra translations, he established pagodas, he widely built Buddha statues, and he had the Buddhist sutras engraved on stone tablets. In the second year of his reign (551 CE), the Emperor Wen Xuandi (also known as Tianbao), announced that he would perform acts of Buddhist kindness and had captured animals released, towers built, and temples constructed. It was also recorded that:
‘He revered loving kindness as a means to brighten and transform the entire world, and made it self-evident that virtue and enlightenment share the same essence. All pet hunting birds that took life for human sport were returned to the remote mountains to live freely. He sponsored a pagoda in the name of the empress Dowager, and abandoned corruption, emphasising instead masters of virtue in the temple.’
Across the country killing was discouraged and Buddhist morality emphasised so that drinking wine and eating meat was banned. In volume 8 of the ‘Continuation of the Eminent Monk Transmission’ it states:
‘Meat-eating and alcohol drinking was banned, and hunting birds were released back into the wild. He abolished fishing and hunting for the officials, and in this way the country became beautiful through its benevolence, as the practice of slaughter ceased under all of the divine-sky (i.e. China). During a six year period, three imperial edicts were issued ordering the people of China to fast, and the imperial government officially sanctioned the growing of fruit and vegetables in royal gardens; a policy designed to replace the necessity of eating bitter-tasting meat.’
Volume 16 of the text entitled ‘Continuation of the Eminent Monk Transmission’, (quoting the text entitled ‘Northern Qi Book – Emperor Wen Xuandi Source of History’) states that in a three year period, the Emperor Wen Xuandi issued three imperial edicts forbidding killing and ordering that vegetarian diets should be followed, as a means to cultivate and manifest a pure mind.
The Emperor Wen Xuandi propagated the vegetarian ideal, the theoretical basis of which he gained from the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, particularly with regard to ‘meat-eating being banned through the practice of loving kindness and compassion. During the Northern Qi Dynasty animals were set free, killing ceased, meat eating stopped, and the instigation of vegetarianism was far-reaching in both practice and effect. However, as the Northern Qi Dynasty inherited its political power as the product of a nomadic ethnic minority (the ‘Xian Bei’) invasion of China, and according to the feudal thinking of the time, its history was not considered orthodox, and so the history of Emperor Liang Wudi (in the south of China) is better known. In the past this meant that the historical records of the Northern Qi Dynasty were difficult to find in China’s official historical narrative, which only recorded the details of the southern ‘Chinese’ Liang Dynasty (and other southern regimes). This is why few people know about the Buddhist inspired vegetarian movement established in the north of China. In the final analysis, it can be correctly stated that the southern Liang Dynasty and the Northern Qi Dynasty both contributed equally to the development of China’s distinct Buddhist vegetarian culture that has endured for over a thousand years.
(Editor: Peng Fengping)
©opyright: Adrian Chan-Wyles (ShiDaDao) 2015.
Original Chinese Language Source Text:
http://www.mzb.com.cn/html/Home/node/388580-1.htm
中国汉传佛教素食传统形成的原因
Authors: 曹文斌 陈升磊
在佛教传入中国之前,印度有戒杀的传统。不过,佛陀虽然强调不杀生,但对于素食并没有严格的要求。佛教在印度流传的初期,也并没有禁断肉食的要求。可以说,素食是中国汉传佛教的特色。中国汉传佛教素食传统的形成,是由佛教经籍的内在要求和当时复杂的社会历史条件所决定的。
我们首先可以从中国佛教经籍的内在要求入手来探讨中国汉传佛教素食的理论依据。素食的要求在佛教经籍中较为多见,概括来说,可以归结为戒杀原则、慈悲理念、修行目的、轮回学说等四个方面。
1.戒杀原则。这是中国汉传佛教素食主义的首要依据。戒杀与素食密切相关,因为食肉间接上是导致杀业存在的原因。对于二者的关系,佛教经文中有表述,如《入楞伽经》卷八说:“若一切人不食肉者,亦无有人杀害众生。由人食肉若无可食处处求买,为财利者杀以贩卖,为买者杀。是故买者与杀无异。”卷六说:“凡杀生者多为人食,人若不食,亦无杀事,是故食肉与杀同罪。”由此,中国汉传佛教认为,食肉就是间接杀生,只有实行素食才是唯一的戒杀办法,中国汉传佛教的素食实践正是为解决这一矛盾而产生的。可以说,戒杀原则是素食的直接理论依据,素食则是落实戒杀原则的一个有力保证。
2.慈悲理念。《大般涅槃经》中有一段佛陀阐述素食出于慈悲心的话:“佛言:善男子,言我想者。谓于众生,生大悲心,无杀害想,谓阿罗汉平等之心,勿谓世尊无有因缘而逆说也。昔日于此王舍城中有大猎师,多杀群鹿请我食肉,我于是时虽受彼请,于诸众生,生慈悲心。”以慈悲为怀的大乘佛教经籍明文指出不得食一切众生肉,因此中国汉传佛教从慈悲理念出发,力倡不杀生、不伤害众生,进而禁绝肉食。《大般涅槃经》中说:“其食肉者,若行若住若坐若卧,一切众生闻其肉气悉生恐怖。”意思是说,为了不致众生闻到食肉之人的气味而感到害怕,因此要求佛家弟子实行素食。中国汉传佛教在同情、关怀和怜悯众生的慈悲理念方面,可谓用心良苦。
3.修行目的。中国汉传佛教认为,食肉的人会断灭慈悲心,这与佛教培养修习慈悲心的目的格格不入。由于“凡是肉食,于出家人悉是不净”是佛教大忌,因而食肉无法达到佛教涅槃的修行境界,不能修成正果。《入楞伽经》卷八就较为明确地阐述了食肉断大慈种的原因:“断我法轮绝灭圣种,一切皆由食肉者过。是故大慧,我弟子者,为护恶人毁谤三宝,乃至不应生念肉想,何况食肉。”意思是说,即使产生了食肉的念头也于慈悲修行不利,更何况食肉?这种修行观念极大地强化了中国汉传佛教的素食实践。
4.轮回学说。中国汉传佛教还从“生死轮回说”上阐明了素食的理由。如《楞严经》卷四说:“以人食羊,羊死为人,人死为羊。如是乃至十生之类,死死生生互来相啖,恶业俱生穷未来际。”而《入楞伽经》卷八中,详细地谈到了众生生生死死,轮转不息,曾经都是父母兄弟,男女眷属,乃至朋友亲戚,不能忍心取食之。轮回学说有力地支持了中国汉传佛教的素食主张。
二
早在佛教传入中国以前,中国就存在素食文化,这种素食文化对中国汉传佛教必然会产生重要的影响。
中国素食传统来自于很早就出现的“养、助、益、充”的饮食观念,提倡“五谷为养、五果为助”,这在中国著名的医学经典著作《黄帝内经》中有详细记载。此后,受老庄清静无为哲学思想的影响,出现了一大批隐逸的文人,他们崇尚自然,认为吃肉使人气浊,而吃素使人气清,因而极力奉行素食。不过,隐逸文人的素食风气,对中国民间的影响相对较小,真正对中国素食传统形成巨大影响的,是道教文化。
道教倡导戒杀和素食,其戒条在道教经典中比比皆是,如《太上老君戒经》说:“一切众生,含气以上翔飞蠕动之类皆不得杀……杀害众生利养身口(杀生治病为养身,宰害供厨为利口也),如此等辈见(现)生受业永坠诸苦。”梁武帝在《断酒肉文》中也说,佛教僧侣饮酒食肉的作风,不仅有悖于佛教教旨教义,而且在这方面与其他出家人(外道)相比甚为汗颜,其行甚至不如在家人。梁武帝在文中列举了“九不及外道”和“九不及居家人”,虽然并没有指明是何教派,但是根据当时的历史环境,可以推测出这应该就是指道教。因为在南北朝时期,与佛教竞争最激烈的宗教就是道教,梁武帝最在意的也是道教,这是因为梁武帝在皈依佛教之前,曾经是一个虔诚的道教徒,和当时的道教名流常相往来。
道教断肉戒荤的主张,与汉传佛教禁断荤腥戒,不但内容相同,其用心与目的也非常近似。道教是中国土生土长的宗教,是构成中国传统文化的重要组成部分,中国汉传佛教的禁荤腥戒,应该和这种道教传统(或者说中国文化传统)有着密切的关系。
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中国汉传佛教的素食传统还有一个最重要的外在力量促动,即历代帝王对素食的极力推行。这里主要介绍南北朝时期的梁武帝和北齐文宣帝发起的大规模戒杀、断肉、食素运动。
在中国历史上,对于中国汉传佛教素食戒律的形成影响最大的事件首推梁武帝下令禁断酒肉。梁武帝是中国历史上著名的虔诚佛教徒,中国汉传佛教的僧伽之所以全面素食,从而形成了独具中国汉传佛教特色的素食传统,学界大体都认为是梁武帝要求佛教僧团“禁断酒肉”事件所促成,其标志即公元511年他亲撰旨在推动佛教僧团禁断肉食的《断酒肉文》。
据该文记载,梁武帝为推动禁断酒肉,曾亲自主持了两次法会,颁布了五道敕文。他在《断酒肉文》中引用了各种佛教经论,其中最主要的是《大般涅槃经》,以说明禁断酒肉的理由。他认为在中国汉传佛教经籍中既然已经规定不得食肉,但是出家人却仍有饮酒食肉的习惯,这与经籍中的素食要求是格格不入的。且就当时的民间信仰而言,在祭祀中也已经开始采用素食供品,这都使身为虔诚佛教徒的梁武帝下定决心开展断酒肉运动。然而梁武帝禁断酒肉的主张,也有僧伽质疑,认为禁断酒肉一说并没有戒律上的依据,仅仅只是经籍要求如此。《广弘明集》中记载:“僧道:律中无有断肉法,又无忏悔食肉法。诸律师从来作若为开导,使人致有此疑。”为彻底解决经籍中有断肉一说而戒律中却无此规定的问题,梁武帝以含有禁断酒肉规定的大乘律典——《梵网经》中的菩萨戒为根据,于天监十八年(520)敕写了《出家人受菩萨戒法》,从而明确了禁断酒肉的戒律来源。随着《梵网经》菩萨戒法的风行,梁武帝也就成功地推动了禁断酒肉的素食运动。
与梁武帝差不多同时代的北齐文宣帝,也曾经进行了长时间、大规模的戒杀断肉的素食运动。公元550年,北齐高氏政权建立,当时佛教的发展非常迅速,有“中兴”之誉。据《续高僧传》卷十记载:“属高齐之盛,佛教中兴。都下大寺,略记四千。见住僧尼,仅将八万。讲席相距二百有余,在众常听出过一万。故宇内英杰咸归厥邦。”北齐皇帝对佛教表现出异乎寻常的热情:礼敬僧人、奖励译经、建立塔寺、广造佛像、刻凿经典。天保二年(551),文宣帝为报佛恩,下诏放生、造塔、建寺:“仰惟慈明缉宁四海,欲报之德,正觉是凭。诸鹫鸟伤生之类,宜放于山林。即以此地为太皇太后经营宝塔,废鹰师曹为报德寺。”(《续高僧传》卷八)后又在全国推行戒杀、断酒、禁肉:“断酒禁肉,放舍鹰鹞,去官畋渔,郁成仁国。又断天下屠杀。越六年,三敕民斋戒,官园私菜荤辛悉除。”(《续高僧传》卷十六)此后三年,文宣帝又连续三次下诏戒杀蔬食,其心之诚,可见一斑。(《北齐书·文宣帝本纪》)
而他当时推行的断肉素食运动的理论依据也直接取源于《大般涅槃经》中“食肉断慈悲种”的思想。北齐的放生、戒杀、断肉、食素运动可谓规模空前、影响深远。只是因为北齐继承的是少数民族的鲜卑族政权,在当时封建社会的正统思想下,不仅见诸于文字记载的史料不多,就是在对后世的影响方面,也远不及梁武帝的素食运动,以致鲜少有人知道这么一段历史。可以说,梁与北齐一南一北,共同促进了中国汉传佛教僧人特有的素食传统,在一定程度上影响了此后中国一千多年的佛教文化。
(编辑:彭凤平)
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