Why Chinese Buddhists Do Not Beg
Original Chinese
Language Article: By Jue Bi
(Translated by Adrian Chan-Wyles PhD)
(Translated by Adrian Chan-Wyles PhD)
Ordinary people spend their days toiling in the hustle and
bustle of the dusty world, with the aim of acquiring at least the minimum level
of earnings to afford adequate food and warm clothing. The result of this labour is that they can
eat enough food, and wear warm clothing.
If they are very successful, the quality and quantity of the food can
increase, as can the quality of the clothing worn, due to their enhanced social
standing. However, with regards to being
an ordained Buddhist monk, the situation is different. In the case of a Buddhist monastic, food is
used only to temporarily relieve hunger and to treat diseases of the body, as
food is only used to maintain and nourish the body. Dietary control of this nature prevents and
avoids gluttony, whilst supporting the pursuance of a life premised upon
wisdom.
Diet is the primary method for maintaining the health and biological functioning of the physical body. As stated, the point of existence in the ordinary world is to secure enough food to eat and adequate clothing to wear, and if possible improve one’s status in life: for an ordained Buddhist monastic, however, this is not the case. A Buddhist monastic must first discipline and settle the body so that the way of the Dharma can be cultivated. The Buddha taught that the mind must be trained to develop wisdom, and that food should be seen as a medicine that keeps the body alive, and which helps relieve hunger and treat diseases. Attachment to food, and the deliberate pursuance of food is forbidden by the Buddha and is viewed as gluttony within the Buddhist monastic discipline.
During the time of early Buddhism (in ancient India), Buddhist monastics begged for a living, and the Vinaya Discipline has many rules regulating this ‘eating’ practice. This is because the Buddha formulated rules according to prevailing circumstances and conditions. When Buddhism first entered China, its practices were adapted to suit the local cultural conditions as followed by the Chinese people. As a consequence, begging was discontinued, and the Buddhist monastics had to develop a new practice which involved monasteries and temples growing their own food in the form of fruit and vegetables.
Agricultural Ch’an as Self-sufficient Farming
During the time of the Buddha, the monastics would put on the outer robe (kasaya), take their begging bowls in hand, and walk in the four directions to secure food donations from the laity. Only during the rainy season (vassa) did the Buddhist monastics not go out of the temple to beg. For Buddhist monastics, the practice of ‘begging food’ has far-reaching significance – as it is designed to overcome arrogance and greedy attachment to delicious food on the one hand (thus freeing the monk or nun to concentrate on self–cultivation), whilst on the other, it allows those who donate food to a Buddhist monastic to cultivate good karmic roots. Therefore, a Buddhist monastic begs food as a means of cultivating ‘right livelihood’, but early Buddhism does not allow the working of the land to plant fruit and vegetables. This is because if farming is done in haste or with an impure mind, living creatures that live in the soil could be hurt.
When Buddhism first arrived on Chinese soil, Chinese Buddhist monastics preserved and practiced the early Buddhist teachings, but overtime this gradually changed and begging for food was abandoned. The earliest historical reference to this change is from the Eastern Jin Dynasty, which states that the Emperor Andi, (in the first year of his dynastic era entitled ‘Righteous Prosperity’ – or the year 405 CE), authored a text discussing the spiritual methods of Buddhist practice, entitled ‘’Buddhist Practice Refutation Discussion’, where he questioned whether certain practices from ancient India were suitable for Chinese culture. He stated:
‘Perhaps Buddhist monastics should cultivate fields and gardens, as agriculture is a respectful tradition.’
After that time, Buddhist monastics developed farming techniques for cultivating fruit and vegetables on the ground surrounding temples and monasteries. Why then, is it the case that Chinese Buddhist monastics are not allowed to beg for a living? This is because the ordained Sangha in China has developed through the direct influence of the socio-economic and cultural conditions prevailing in China, and has adapted to represent and serve the local needs and customs of the people. Within Chinese culture, the act of ‘begging and demanding’ is looked down upon, and viewed as an abhorrent behaviour, as there is a very strong belief in working or labouring (to benefit society) as a means to secure sustenance. Therefore monks who beg for food are viewed as ‘gaining something for nothing, and not working for a living.’ This is why in China, the Sangha could not gain respect from the ordinary people when they used to beg for a living – as the people did not like this behaviour. Another practical reason for the abandonment of begging was because many monasteries and temples were located in remote areas far from any lay communities – which meant that the Buddhist monastics had no one from whom they could request food. Therefore, since the time of the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the imperial families and the nobility have donated land to the Buddhist monastics for farming, and for building accommodation. This marked the end of the Buddhist practice in China of direct begging to acquire sustenance, as the Sangha had to develop its own production methods to remain self-sufficient.
During the time of the Tang Dynasty, the Great Master Mazu developed the forest dwelling tradition for Ch’an Buddhist monastics, and Ch’an Master Baizhang developed a clear set of monastic discipline regulations, which marked the beginning of a new era in the lifestyle of the Buddhist Sangha in China that advocated the principle of ‘farm in the day, meditate at night.’ Ch’an monastic communities became self-sufficient through the combination of Ch’an practice and farming. Ch’an Master Baizhang emphasised ‘a day without productive labour, a day without food,’ and because of his upright and virtuous character, the Buddhist monastics followed his example and this behaviour began an enduring tradition that has been passed on down through the generations.
Venerating Vegetarianism & the Path of Enduring Buddhist Compassion Out of the original dietary regulations found within early Buddhist teachings, the Chinese Buddhist tradition has developed an emphasis upon ‘vegetarian food’. In ancient India, the Buddhist monks would beg from the lay-community and the laity would put any food in their bowls. This is why the Buddha never explicitly prohibited the giving or receiving of meat whilst begging, but this was regulated by the convention that clearly stated that even when begging, elephant meat, horse meat, lizard meat, and human flesh were all absolutely forbidden. Other than this proscription, the monk could receive (and eat meat) if the animal was not killed in front him, killed for him, or killed with his prior knowledge (see section four of the Vinaya). However, within Mahayana Buddhism there is a strict ban on all meat-eating which stems from the ‘Brahmajala Sutra’s Bodhisattva Precepts’, which state that Buddhists ‘must not use other living-beings as food, because meat-eating is a crime beyond measure.’ The Nirvana Sutra also states: ‘those who eat meat, cannot generate a great compassion.’ Therefore to refrain from killing requires a vegetarian diet premised upon a Mahayana mind that is motivated by loving kindness and compassion toward all beings without exception.
Mahayana Buddhism, and vegetarian Chinese Buddhist monks had a very good relationship with Emperor Liang Wudi. In 511 CE, the Emperor Liang Wudi issued an edict which forever forbade drinking wine and eating meat. This edict called upon all Buddhist monastics not to drink alcohol or eat meat – and that if they defied this edict, they would be severely punished under the law. Through imperial support, a strict vegetarian diet became the normal practice for the Chinese Buddhist Sangha. This successful practice was supported and augmented by monasteries and temples becoming self-sufficient by growing their own food. Today in modern China, the ordained Buddhist Sangha (and many lay Buddhists) still follow this strict dietary regime.
In the past, temples and monasteries in China suffered widespread poverty. Buddhist monastics had to learn to be diligent and make do with very little. Vegetables were pickled and the daily meal consisted of a small measure of cooked rice. As the calorie intake was so low, monastics would eat a meal before noon, and then later eat an additional meal. These meals are mostly comprised of congee and pickled vegetables. Today – in modern Taiwan for example – temples and monasteries have been blessed with visitors and donations, and their economic situation has improved. Today, vegetarianism is now very popular amongst the laity who have been influenced by the examples set by the monks and nuns they have seen in the temples and monasteries they visit for worship. Farming land has been converted from pastures to vegetable plots, and there has been a rapid growth in vegetarian restaurants. This is because in recent years there has been a popular surge in the respect for nature, and a demand for simple and pure food, and so vegetarianism has become the modern trend. Although it began as a strictly spiritual diet, vegetarianism has now mainstreamed among the populace, and as a choice of diet, has evolved in society outside of the temple.
Five Observations: Entering the Hall, and Correctly Eating Food
The principle of ‘entering the hall’ and behaving properly at all times, is an important part of Ch’an monastic discipline, prevalent in temples and monasteries throughout China, and as such plays a very important role in the life of the ordained Sangha. Whether early in the morning, eating lunch, or entering the hall for meditation, the Buddhist monastics must continuously observe five basic contemplations. When the ‘Cloud Shaped Gong’ is struck, the ordained population of the temple file quietly into the hall – observing the five contemplations – and take their seated positions according to the set order. After asking if there are any issues that need attending to, the master of the hall begins the morning chanting – and the assembled Sangha collectively follow his lead – chanting the ‘sustaining gatha’. This practice generates karmic merit in the ten directions, by showing respect to all the Buddhas living in the three realms. The gathered monastics remind themselves that the only purpose for eating food is to prevent excessive hunger, and to nourish the body. They never forget that they are sincerely seeking the path of the Buddha, for the benefit of all sentient beings, and emulating the examples of the sages from ancient times. The early morning (breakfast) vegetarian food song states: ‘Congee is infinitely beneficial and is bountiful, as all sentient beings gain happiness and boundless positive karmic-fruit.’ The mid-day (lunch) vegetarian food song states: ‘The three virtues possess six tastes that sustain both Buddhas and monks alike… At meal-times, the food is for the benefit of all sentient beings, and this fact delights the mind. It is the Dharma that creates happiness and prevents hunger.’ The master in charge of the hall then gives a brief speech, and then the gathered congregation begins to eat the food. During meal-times, there are a number of wooden cups and bowls that are used in the hall, but a small number of temples and monasteries use bowls made out of clay. The bowls and cups are arranged neatly in fixed positions, and none are allowed to be moved out of place. When the soup is added to the vegetables (in the individual bowls) in the hall, the conduct of the monastics must be strictly controlled, and there must no noise, or sudden and uncontrolled movements – either from those serving the food, or those receiving the food. When the monastics are assembled for meal-times, the following five rules of contemplation must be observed at all times:
1) Bear in mind and appreciate the labour that others have endured to produce the food that is being received. (This is the principle of right effort and includes the planting, growing, harvesting, purchasing and preparing of the rice, vegetables, and tea, as well as its serving to the monastics and the eating of the food by the monastics).
2) The monastics must consider his or her ‘virtue’, and if it is lacking in anyway, strive to remedy this deficiency. (This is designed to remedy issues of incorrect [or wrong] thought, and to prevent correspondingly negative speech and action from arising).
3) Observe the mind, and be ever aware of any greed that may arise therein. (This continuous awareness of right concentration and right thought, is the practice of effort associated with the ability to dissolve thoughts of greed that arise out of past karmic habits in the mind, and prevent new thoughts of greed from arising).
4) Food and drink must be viewed as a good medicine that supports the body, treats illness, and prevents disease. The purpose of food and drink is that it is designed not to indulge the appetite (or encourage greed), but is rather a simple device to stem the feeling of excessive hunger (in mind and body) and prevent physical death (from starvation and thirst). For a Buddhist monastic, this is the only correct way of viewing food and the act of eating.
5) The monastic receives the food (and drink) only as a means to sustain the minimal requirements for the physical body, so that the adherent of the Dharma can pursue (whilst occupying a living body) the correct path toward enlightenment. For Buddhist monastics, there is no other valid way of viewing food (and drink).
A continuous effort in the right direction is required to both discipline and develop the mind. This can be achieved by repeating the Buddha’s name with reverence, or by holding the (hua tou) questioning phrase ‘Who is eating?’. Finally, the gathered assembly of monastics chant a Buddhist gatha that commits them to following a strictly regulated, vegetarian diet, ‘…the donated food and drink) must achieve its positive karmic benefits for those who have supplied it… The health of innumerable beings is enhanced by this practice, which corresponds to the correct teachings of the Buddha-Dharma.’ The positive karma generated by this attitude of mind and behaviour of body, protects all beings completely, and cannot be broken due to its immeasurable Karmic merit.
When the monastic community has assembled in the hall, the entire ritual of food-eating must be carried-out within an atmosphere of peaceful silence. As meal-times are quiet, the Venerable Abbot uses the opportunity to make any important announcements to the community. This tradition is known as ‘Announce in the Hall’. On the first day of each month, the fifteenth day of each month, and on special days, vegetable dishes are added to feed the lay-workers who assist at the temple. Monastics also distribute food to lay-Buddhist practitioners living in the general area of the temple. This is because many temples are located in remote areas where there is much hardship for the laity, who can get food from a small temple soup kitchen located to the right side of the main hall. This is the practice of compassion for all beings suffering from hunger and hardship. This action is premised upon the concepts found within the Buddhist sutras of ‘ghosts and spirits congregating in the wilderness’, and ‘rakshasas that devour human flesh’, and is designed to relieve the situation through loving kindness and compassion, as when the people are fed, offerings are also made to the spirits, ghosts, and demons, by the monk in charge of giving out the food. When the rice and noodles are distributed from the soup kitchen, prayers are said for the removal of all corruption and misery in the world. Vegetarian food is distributed in the wilderness with a mind that is broad and expansive, which simultaneously generates loving kindness and compassion in the ten directions.
Eating Only at Noon is Difficult without Extra Medicinal Food
Within the original Buddhist system, ordained monastics eat only one meal a day, and they eat that meal before noon. Prior to the Tang Dynasty, Chinese Buddhist monastics also strictly adhered to the practice of eating just one meal a day, but over-time, as Buddhism adapted to local conditions, this practice – along with begging – was abandoned. China is a large country and its geography and climate vary considerably between north and south. The monastics must work hard to cultivate the land, plant the seeds, and harvest the food. This labour-intensive activity required much energy to achieve, and this led to the Buddhist monastics abandoning the old system (from India). Begging was replaced with the temple or monastery officially providing the food (that had been farmed by the monks and nuns themselves), and the noon meal was supplemented by a ‘medicinal meal’ designed to support the body during hard labour. As this meal consists of left-over congee from the noon-meal – it is all called ‘late congee’. In the meditation hall during Ch’an Week Retreats, there is extensive activity all day long consisting of hours of seated meditation interspersed with exercise periods of running around the periphery of hall. As the physical wear and tear is extensive on these occasions, the participants are allowed up to four (or five) small meals a day. The four main meal-times are:
1) Early congee
2) Noon congee
3) Afternoon congee (leftover from the noon meal)
4) 8pm - steam buns or congee – referred to as ‘release (from) participation’ meal.
Under the old system (from India), monks had to beg for food, but there was no guarantee that they would be given food that they could eat before noon, especially if they lived in remote areas. The monastics were dependent upon the laity for support. This meant that the monastics entered and left the temple (and meditation hall) at different times, and meal-times were irregular. This is why Ch’an Master Baizhang formulated a clear monastic rule to regulate the daily routine of monks and nuns. He stated, ‘Just before noon, have mid-day rice with the congregation. Just before evening, have late congee with the congregation. However, it is better only to eat food at the allotted time (before noon). Stay in the temple at night – the next day have food around noon – that is permitted.’ Even in Baizhang’s day, Buddhist monastics found it difficult to only eat before noon. With regards to Chinese Buddhist monastics who cannot keep the regulation by only eating before noon, how should the idea of a ‘medicine meal’ be applied so as to keep their minds sharp? The great Ming Dynasty master known as Lianchi, in the book entitled ‘Synopsis of Novice Discipline’ stated, ‘Violation of the Buddha’s instruction must be understood to be a matter of great shame in life. The mind (and body) can become infected by hungry ghosts, and permeated by sadness. Food will be in short supply, of bad quality and of infrequent supply.’ This demonstrates that a Buddhist monastic who eats the medicine meal ‘after noon’, must always bear in-mind the danger of breaking the rules, and maintain a sense of appropriate shame, and compassion.
Founding Patriarch of Correct Discipline in the Kitchen
Originally, Chinese Buddhist monastics had to prepare and cook their own food. This led over-time to the emergence of different kinds of masters who supervised the various aspects of food preparation in the kitchen, and the serving of food in the dining hall. The following are Baizhang’s rules and regulations regarding how these masters should behave:
1) Duty Master: is responsible for the general well-being of the entire community in the temple or monastery. This position is the second most powerful master – only behind that of the abbot. He ensures that all the duty-roles are fulfilled by suitable monks (see below), and that there is an adequate supply of vegetables, soup and rice at all times.
2) Rice Chief: is responsible for the preparing and cooking of rice and congee.
3) Discipline Chief: is responsible for organising all required labour in the dining hall.
4) Fire Chief: is responsible for the fire burning beneath the cooking-pot.
5) Water Chief: is responsible for the water supply in the great hall, and every other hall in the temple. Each vat must be kept full of clean water.
6) Vegetable Chief is responsible for cleaning and cooking the vegetables.
7) Barrel Chief: is responsible for cleaning the rice barrels in the dining hall after every meal.
8) Mill Chief: is responsible for grinding wheat and rice to make tofu.
Other posts include Coal Chief, Tea Chief, and Pot Chief, for instance, but as each temple has a different setting and location, the types of masters often vary due to the difference in local conditions.
The Chinese Buddhist tradition of situating temples and monasteries in remote areas, has a strict set of regulations for ordering the preparation, cooking, serving, cleaning, and supplying of food and water. The duties for each master are clearly explained and established, and there is no excuse for incorrect behaviour surrounding meal-times in the temples and monasteries. Therefore it is said, ‘The true value of a grain of rice should be clearly understood… Even more so when consideration is given to feeding many mouths. Is the rice sour or salty? Does it smell fragrant? Has it been prepared and cooked properly? Do not behave in a careless or indiscreet manner, so that the mind can always be nourished… When rice is served no mistakes should be made.’ As all Buddhist monastics are required to follow the precepts, the law masters must set a good example, act selflessly, and exercise the spirit of giving to everyone in the community without exception. The duties of these masters are very important for the welfare of the entire community, and must be performed with the utmost care and attention. In ancient times, many great masters and patriarchs occupied the role of duty master (and other positions) without hesitation. For instance, Ch’an Master Xue Feng was once the rice chief, whilst Ch’an Master Wei Yang was once the duty master… ‘There is no function a duty master cannot perform for the community, this is because carrying water and fetching firewood are nothing but the practice of (profound) Buddhist ritual. De-husking and grinding rice is not a problem – whatever is required – it must be done!’ Although it is true that Chinese Buddhist monastics no longer go out of the temple to beg, it is also true that the chiefs of the kitchen – under guidance of the duty-distributor master – selflessly serve the monastic community and ensure its safety and sustainability. In this regard, the network of dedicated monks and nuns who perform these duties in the temples and monasteries of China, have developed one of the best spiritual-cooperating mechanisms in the world.
©opyright: Adrian Chan-Wyles (ShiDaDao) 2015.
Original Chinese language Source Article:
http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_4d5b41b30102dzxo.html
漫談佛教的齋飯
一般人每日塵勞奔忙,最低限度的目標便是求得衣食溫飽,如果能吃飽穿暖後,最好還能吃得好,穿出地位。而對出家僧人而言,只是以食物治療饑病,滋養色身,長養慧命,不可恣意貪食...
飲食,是生物維系色身的要件之一。一般人每日塵勞奔忙,最低限度的目標便是求得衣食溫飽,如果能吃飽穿暖後,最好還能吃得好,穿出地位;對出家僧人而言,要能專心辦道,首先也是必須安頓色身,但佛陀教導比丘將食物視爲“藥”,只是以食物治療饑病,滋養色身,長養慧命,不可恣意貪食。
原始佛教時的僧人以乞食爲生,在律藏中關于“食”的規定非常多,都是佛陀依著當時的情境而加以制定的。佛教傳入中國後,爲適應民情風俗,中國僧人食物的來源、形式與內容,就産生了另一番新的風貌。
農禅生活自耕自食
佛世時,比丘們身披袈裟,手持著缽,四處乞食遊化,只有在雨季裏,才回到精舍或固定的一處結夏安居,此時不再出外托缽。對僧人而言,“乞食”蘊涵著深遠的意義──一方面是降伏驕慢,不貪美味,毫無選擇,專心修道;另一方面則是藉著乞食因緣與居士接觸,給予布施種福田、說法的機會。所以,乞食是僧人的正命,墾土掘地、種植蔬果以致傷害生命,這是原始佛教所不許的。
佛教初傳中土,中國沙門仍然堅守著佛陀的遺教,後來僧人逐漸放棄托缽乞食的方式,最早可見的記錄是東晉安帝義熙元年(西元四○五年)道恒的《釋駁論》中指出當時沙門“或墾殖田圃,與農夫齊流”,可知當時僧人已開始耕種了。
爲什麽中國僧人無法再過乞食的生活呢?這與中國的民情及僧團在中國的發展有關。
在中國的文化裏,“乞討”是卑賤的行爲,何況在普遍重視勞動的大社會,僧人乞食,被視爲“不事勞作,不事生産”,難以獲得社會大衆的認同與尊敬;其次僧團人數不斷增加擴大,寺院又位處偏遠,端賴托缽乞食有實質的困難。在此情況下,自南北朝以降,皇室貴族以賜田與舍田的方式供養僧人,不再直接布施飲食;相對地,僧團也必須自行組織生産的方式,以便自給自足。
到唐朝時,馬祖大師創建叢林,百丈禅師立下清規,正式開啓中國僧伽生活新型態,僧人開始過著“晝而農、夜而禅”自耕自食的農禅生活,百丈禅師“一日不作,一日不食”身體力行的高風亮節,成爲後代僧人效法的榜樣,在作務中修行也成爲僧人奉行不渝的信念。
菜根香,佛門悲心長
比之原始佛教的飲食,中國佛教最突顯的是“素食”。在佛世時,僧人既是乞食,居士供養什麽,比丘就接受什麽,因此佛陀並未禁止僧人食肉,除了象肉、馬肉、龍肉、人肉不得吃,其余肉類,只要不見殺、不聞殺、不爲我殺(三淨肉),皆可接受(見四分律)。
而大乘佛教是嚴禁肉食的,《梵網經菩薩戒本》即指出“不得食一切衆生肉,食肉得無量罪”;《涅盤經》中也說“食肉者,斷大慈種”。以慈心戒殺素食,正是悲憫衆生、長養大乘慈悲的表現。
中國僧人素食也和笃信大乘佛教的梁武帝有莫大的關系。公元五一一年梁武帝召集諸沙門立誓永斷酒肉,並以法令公告,違者嚴懲。由于帝王的推動,加上中國寺院自耕自食,廣大的莊園提供素食來源,這項教團改革,收到極大的成效,直至今日中國佛教僧團仍堅行素食。
以往的寺院經濟普遍貧困,加以僧人勤儉,腌醬特多,每日齋飯,除中午一餐吃飯外,多半食粥,佐以陳年腌菜。現今台灣拜經濟成長之福,僧人的飲食也隨著轉變,諸如素食人口快速增多,素食館相繼設立,素食制成品種類多樣化了。近幾年更刮起回歸自然之風,清淡的生食、素食自然成了新時代的寵兒,從健康的角度來看,它已漸漸脫離了宗教的素食了。
二時過堂食存五觀
“過堂”,也是中國叢林中特有的儀制,它在僧伽生活中占有重要的地位,早、午齋的過堂,是出家人五堂功課中的兩堂。
當雲板響起,大衆搭衣魚貫進入五觀堂,依序就坐,向上問訊後維那起腔,大衆齊唱“供養偈”,供養十方三世一切諸佛,面對充饑養身的食物時,僧人再度提醒自己,不忘上求佛道、下化衆生,要追隨先聖先賢。早齋唱“粥有十利,饒益行人,果報無邊,究竟常樂。”午齋則唱“三德六味,供佛及僧…… 若飯食時,當願衆生,禅悅爲食,法喜充滿。”
接著維那師呼僧跋後,大衆便開始用齋。叢林過堂多使用碗盤,少數寺院使用缽,碗盤皆有一定位置,不得恣意擺放,添湯加菜由行堂服務,也不得出聲、恣動。在飯食中須心存五觀(一、計功多少,量彼來處;二、忖己德行,全缺應供;三、防心離過,貪等爲宗;四、正事良藥,爲療形枯;五、爲成道業,方受此食。)並攝心用功,或持佛名號或參“吃飯的是誰”。末了,大衆唱結齋偈“…… 所謂布施者,必獲其利益…… 當願衆生,所作皆辦,具諸佛法”,感念信施護持,回向衆生皆得圓滿。
整個過堂是一個安靜的用食過程,住持和尚如有事便會在此時向大衆宣布,稱爲“表堂”。每月初一、十五或特殊節日便加菜勞衆,或有居士齋僧布施也加菜。
中國佛寺通常在大殿外右側會設個小小的施食台,體恤饑困的衆生。它是根據佛經中“曠野鬼神衆”及“羅刹鬼子母”的典故而來,大衆過堂時,都由一僧人負責出食,將七粒米或指甲許的面條,透過觀想及大衆的加持,施食給衆生,願他們同得飽滿並去除悭貪。
簡樸的叢林用齋,象征的是高遠的智慧與寬廣的情懷。
持午不易提供藥石
佛制僧人日中一食、過午不食,中唐以前中國僧人皆嚴格持午,漸漸地,也如同乞食一般,經過時空的演變、適應而被放棄了。因爲中國地理的南北幅員廣闊,加上僧人的自耕自食,勞動量大,僧人終于放棄傳統的佛制,寺院正式提供晚餐,稱“藥石”,藥石皆吃粥,也稱“晚粥”。
而禅堂禅七期間,整日皆有活動,打坐、跑香交替用功,體力耗損甚巨,所以一日用餐達四、五次,除早粥、午飯外,下午吃午粥(點心粥),晚上八點還吃一餐,也是吃粥或饅頭,稱爲“放參”。
另外,還有出外求法的行腳僧,在前不著村,後不著店的因緣下,吃飯時間和食物沒有保障,不受過午不食的限制,可以說什麽時候得到食物,就什麽時候吃,不過,當他們到禅堂挂單時,就必須隨衆,百丈清規附旦過堂規中,就針對雲水僧這麽規定:“一近午到,午飯隨衆;近晚到,晚粥隨衆;時過始到,補吃;晚到一宿,次日午飯即行。”
中國僧人既不能嚴持過午不食戒,須用何種心態用藥石呢?明朝蓮池大師所著的《沙彌律儀要略》提到“必也知違佛制,生大慚愧,念餓鬼苦,常行悲濟,不多食、不美食、不安意食”,說明了僧人用藥石時須心存警惕,具足慚愧和慈悲。
香積廚中出祖師
中國僧人必須自行炊煮,負責僧衆飲食的執事人便因應出現了,在百丈清規中記載了以下的執事:
一、典座:職掌大衆齋粥一切供養。
二、飯頭:負責煮粥飯。
三、行頭:于齋堂中執勞役。
四、火頭:負責燒飯鍋。
五、水頭:負責大寮茶房及各堂缸水,常令盈滿清潔。
六、菜頭:負責煮菜。
七、桶頭:負責洗淨齋堂菜桶、飯桶。
八、磨頭:負責磨米麥、作豆腐。
其他尚有炭頭、茶頭、鍋頭不等,各寺院因時因地而設,並不統一。
中國寺院叢林並有嚴格的廚房規約、庫房規約,注明各執事的職掌及應具備的知見,如“寸薪粒米當知來處之艱難……更當思調和夫衆口,酸鹹適味、香軟得宜,慎重烹饪,勿生輕忽,以供養爲懷……粥飯三時,不得一朝失誤……”作爲僧人領執的指南,在執事中培養奉獻喜舍的精神,更要反觀自己的用心處。因此古來許多偉大的祖師皆出自大寮(廚房),如雪峰禅師當過飯頭,沩仰禅師當過典座……“莫謂執事之外,更無所營,須知運水搬柴,無非佛事;舂米作飯,正好參求。”雖然中國僧人不再出外乞食,卻在執事,尤其大寮執事中,互相護持,滋養色身、慧命,開辟了另一個成就道業的最佳壇城。
Diet is the primary method for maintaining the health and biological functioning of the physical body. As stated, the point of existence in the ordinary world is to secure enough food to eat and adequate clothing to wear, and if possible improve one’s status in life: for an ordained Buddhist monastic, however, this is not the case. A Buddhist monastic must first discipline and settle the body so that the way of the Dharma can be cultivated. The Buddha taught that the mind must be trained to develop wisdom, and that food should be seen as a medicine that keeps the body alive, and which helps relieve hunger and treat diseases. Attachment to food, and the deliberate pursuance of food is forbidden by the Buddha and is viewed as gluttony within the Buddhist monastic discipline.
During the time of early Buddhism (in ancient India), Buddhist monastics begged for a living, and the Vinaya Discipline has many rules regulating this ‘eating’ practice. This is because the Buddha formulated rules according to prevailing circumstances and conditions. When Buddhism first entered China, its practices were adapted to suit the local cultural conditions as followed by the Chinese people. As a consequence, begging was discontinued, and the Buddhist monastics had to develop a new practice which involved monasteries and temples growing their own food in the form of fruit and vegetables.
Agricultural Ch’an as Self-sufficient Farming
During the time of the Buddha, the monastics would put on the outer robe (kasaya), take their begging bowls in hand, and walk in the four directions to secure food donations from the laity. Only during the rainy season (vassa) did the Buddhist monastics not go out of the temple to beg. For Buddhist monastics, the practice of ‘begging food’ has far-reaching significance – as it is designed to overcome arrogance and greedy attachment to delicious food on the one hand (thus freeing the monk or nun to concentrate on self–cultivation), whilst on the other, it allows those who donate food to a Buddhist monastic to cultivate good karmic roots. Therefore, a Buddhist monastic begs food as a means of cultivating ‘right livelihood’, but early Buddhism does not allow the working of the land to plant fruit and vegetables. This is because if farming is done in haste or with an impure mind, living creatures that live in the soil could be hurt.
When Buddhism first arrived on Chinese soil, Chinese Buddhist monastics preserved and practiced the early Buddhist teachings, but overtime this gradually changed and begging for food was abandoned. The earliest historical reference to this change is from the Eastern Jin Dynasty, which states that the Emperor Andi, (in the first year of his dynastic era entitled ‘Righteous Prosperity’ – or the year 405 CE), authored a text discussing the spiritual methods of Buddhist practice, entitled ‘’Buddhist Practice Refutation Discussion’, where he questioned whether certain practices from ancient India were suitable for Chinese culture. He stated:
‘Perhaps Buddhist monastics should cultivate fields and gardens, as agriculture is a respectful tradition.’
After that time, Buddhist monastics developed farming techniques for cultivating fruit and vegetables on the ground surrounding temples and monasteries. Why then, is it the case that Chinese Buddhist monastics are not allowed to beg for a living? This is because the ordained Sangha in China has developed through the direct influence of the socio-economic and cultural conditions prevailing in China, and has adapted to represent and serve the local needs and customs of the people. Within Chinese culture, the act of ‘begging and demanding’ is looked down upon, and viewed as an abhorrent behaviour, as there is a very strong belief in working or labouring (to benefit society) as a means to secure sustenance. Therefore monks who beg for food are viewed as ‘gaining something for nothing, and not working for a living.’ This is why in China, the Sangha could not gain respect from the ordinary people when they used to beg for a living – as the people did not like this behaviour. Another practical reason for the abandonment of begging was because many monasteries and temples were located in remote areas far from any lay communities – which meant that the Buddhist monastics had no one from whom they could request food. Therefore, since the time of the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the imperial families and the nobility have donated land to the Buddhist monastics for farming, and for building accommodation. This marked the end of the Buddhist practice in China of direct begging to acquire sustenance, as the Sangha had to develop its own production methods to remain self-sufficient.
During the time of the Tang Dynasty, the Great Master Mazu developed the forest dwelling tradition for Ch’an Buddhist monastics, and Ch’an Master Baizhang developed a clear set of monastic discipline regulations, which marked the beginning of a new era in the lifestyle of the Buddhist Sangha in China that advocated the principle of ‘farm in the day, meditate at night.’ Ch’an monastic communities became self-sufficient through the combination of Ch’an practice and farming. Ch’an Master Baizhang emphasised ‘a day without productive labour, a day without food,’ and because of his upright and virtuous character, the Buddhist monastics followed his example and this behaviour began an enduring tradition that has been passed on down through the generations.
Venerating Vegetarianism & the Path of Enduring Buddhist Compassion Out of the original dietary regulations found within early Buddhist teachings, the Chinese Buddhist tradition has developed an emphasis upon ‘vegetarian food’. In ancient India, the Buddhist monks would beg from the lay-community and the laity would put any food in their bowls. This is why the Buddha never explicitly prohibited the giving or receiving of meat whilst begging, but this was regulated by the convention that clearly stated that even when begging, elephant meat, horse meat, lizard meat, and human flesh were all absolutely forbidden. Other than this proscription, the monk could receive (and eat meat) if the animal was not killed in front him, killed for him, or killed with his prior knowledge (see section four of the Vinaya). However, within Mahayana Buddhism there is a strict ban on all meat-eating which stems from the ‘Brahmajala Sutra’s Bodhisattva Precepts’, which state that Buddhists ‘must not use other living-beings as food, because meat-eating is a crime beyond measure.’ The Nirvana Sutra also states: ‘those who eat meat, cannot generate a great compassion.’ Therefore to refrain from killing requires a vegetarian diet premised upon a Mahayana mind that is motivated by loving kindness and compassion toward all beings without exception.
Mahayana Buddhism, and vegetarian Chinese Buddhist monks had a very good relationship with Emperor Liang Wudi. In 511 CE, the Emperor Liang Wudi issued an edict which forever forbade drinking wine and eating meat. This edict called upon all Buddhist monastics not to drink alcohol or eat meat – and that if they defied this edict, they would be severely punished under the law. Through imperial support, a strict vegetarian diet became the normal practice for the Chinese Buddhist Sangha. This successful practice was supported and augmented by monasteries and temples becoming self-sufficient by growing their own food. Today in modern China, the ordained Buddhist Sangha (and many lay Buddhists) still follow this strict dietary regime.
In the past, temples and monasteries in China suffered widespread poverty. Buddhist monastics had to learn to be diligent and make do with very little. Vegetables were pickled and the daily meal consisted of a small measure of cooked rice. As the calorie intake was so low, monastics would eat a meal before noon, and then later eat an additional meal. These meals are mostly comprised of congee and pickled vegetables. Today – in modern Taiwan for example – temples and monasteries have been blessed with visitors and donations, and their economic situation has improved. Today, vegetarianism is now very popular amongst the laity who have been influenced by the examples set by the monks and nuns they have seen in the temples and monasteries they visit for worship. Farming land has been converted from pastures to vegetable plots, and there has been a rapid growth in vegetarian restaurants. This is because in recent years there has been a popular surge in the respect for nature, and a demand for simple and pure food, and so vegetarianism has become the modern trend. Although it began as a strictly spiritual diet, vegetarianism has now mainstreamed among the populace, and as a choice of diet, has evolved in society outside of the temple.
Five Observations: Entering the Hall, and Correctly Eating Food
The principle of ‘entering the hall’ and behaving properly at all times, is an important part of Ch’an monastic discipline, prevalent in temples and monasteries throughout China, and as such plays a very important role in the life of the ordained Sangha. Whether early in the morning, eating lunch, or entering the hall for meditation, the Buddhist monastics must continuously observe five basic contemplations. When the ‘Cloud Shaped Gong’ is struck, the ordained population of the temple file quietly into the hall – observing the five contemplations – and take their seated positions according to the set order. After asking if there are any issues that need attending to, the master of the hall begins the morning chanting – and the assembled Sangha collectively follow his lead – chanting the ‘sustaining gatha’. This practice generates karmic merit in the ten directions, by showing respect to all the Buddhas living in the three realms. The gathered monastics remind themselves that the only purpose for eating food is to prevent excessive hunger, and to nourish the body. They never forget that they are sincerely seeking the path of the Buddha, for the benefit of all sentient beings, and emulating the examples of the sages from ancient times. The early morning (breakfast) vegetarian food song states: ‘Congee is infinitely beneficial and is bountiful, as all sentient beings gain happiness and boundless positive karmic-fruit.’ The mid-day (lunch) vegetarian food song states: ‘The three virtues possess six tastes that sustain both Buddhas and monks alike… At meal-times, the food is for the benefit of all sentient beings, and this fact delights the mind. It is the Dharma that creates happiness and prevents hunger.’ The master in charge of the hall then gives a brief speech, and then the gathered congregation begins to eat the food. During meal-times, there are a number of wooden cups and bowls that are used in the hall, but a small number of temples and monasteries use bowls made out of clay. The bowls and cups are arranged neatly in fixed positions, and none are allowed to be moved out of place. When the soup is added to the vegetables (in the individual bowls) in the hall, the conduct of the monastics must be strictly controlled, and there must no noise, or sudden and uncontrolled movements – either from those serving the food, or those receiving the food. When the monastics are assembled for meal-times, the following five rules of contemplation must be observed at all times:
1) Bear in mind and appreciate the labour that others have endured to produce the food that is being received. (This is the principle of right effort and includes the planting, growing, harvesting, purchasing and preparing of the rice, vegetables, and tea, as well as its serving to the monastics and the eating of the food by the monastics).
2) The monastics must consider his or her ‘virtue’, and if it is lacking in anyway, strive to remedy this deficiency. (This is designed to remedy issues of incorrect [or wrong] thought, and to prevent correspondingly negative speech and action from arising).
3) Observe the mind, and be ever aware of any greed that may arise therein. (This continuous awareness of right concentration and right thought, is the practice of effort associated with the ability to dissolve thoughts of greed that arise out of past karmic habits in the mind, and prevent new thoughts of greed from arising).
4) Food and drink must be viewed as a good medicine that supports the body, treats illness, and prevents disease. The purpose of food and drink is that it is designed not to indulge the appetite (or encourage greed), but is rather a simple device to stem the feeling of excessive hunger (in mind and body) and prevent physical death (from starvation and thirst). For a Buddhist monastic, this is the only correct way of viewing food and the act of eating.
5) The monastic receives the food (and drink) only as a means to sustain the minimal requirements for the physical body, so that the adherent of the Dharma can pursue (whilst occupying a living body) the correct path toward enlightenment. For Buddhist monastics, there is no other valid way of viewing food (and drink).
A continuous effort in the right direction is required to both discipline and develop the mind. This can be achieved by repeating the Buddha’s name with reverence, or by holding the (hua tou) questioning phrase ‘Who is eating?’. Finally, the gathered assembly of monastics chant a Buddhist gatha that commits them to following a strictly regulated, vegetarian diet, ‘…the donated food and drink) must achieve its positive karmic benefits for those who have supplied it… The health of innumerable beings is enhanced by this practice, which corresponds to the correct teachings of the Buddha-Dharma.’ The positive karma generated by this attitude of mind and behaviour of body, protects all beings completely, and cannot be broken due to its immeasurable Karmic merit.
When the monastic community has assembled in the hall, the entire ritual of food-eating must be carried-out within an atmosphere of peaceful silence. As meal-times are quiet, the Venerable Abbot uses the opportunity to make any important announcements to the community. This tradition is known as ‘Announce in the Hall’. On the first day of each month, the fifteenth day of each month, and on special days, vegetable dishes are added to feed the lay-workers who assist at the temple. Monastics also distribute food to lay-Buddhist practitioners living in the general area of the temple. This is because many temples are located in remote areas where there is much hardship for the laity, who can get food from a small temple soup kitchen located to the right side of the main hall. This is the practice of compassion for all beings suffering from hunger and hardship. This action is premised upon the concepts found within the Buddhist sutras of ‘ghosts and spirits congregating in the wilderness’, and ‘rakshasas that devour human flesh’, and is designed to relieve the situation through loving kindness and compassion, as when the people are fed, offerings are also made to the spirits, ghosts, and demons, by the monk in charge of giving out the food. When the rice and noodles are distributed from the soup kitchen, prayers are said for the removal of all corruption and misery in the world. Vegetarian food is distributed in the wilderness with a mind that is broad and expansive, which simultaneously generates loving kindness and compassion in the ten directions.
Eating Only at Noon is Difficult without Extra Medicinal Food
Within the original Buddhist system, ordained monastics eat only one meal a day, and they eat that meal before noon. Prior to the Tang Dynasty, Chinese Buddhist monastics also strictly adhered to the practice of eating just one meal a day, but over-time, as Buddhism adapted to local conditions, this practice – along with begging – was abandoned. China is a large country and its geography and climate vary considerably between north and south. The monastics must work hard to cultivate the land, plant the seeds, and harvest the food. This labour-intensive activity required much energy to achieve, and this led to the Buddhist monastics abandoning the old system (from India). Begging was replaced with the temple or monastery officially providing the food (that had been farmed by the monks and nuns themselves), and the noon meal was supplemented by a ‘medicinal meal’ designed to support the body during hard labour. As this meal consists of left-over congee from the noon-meal – it is all called ‘late congee’. In the meditation hall during Ch’an Week Retreats, there is extensive activity all day long consisting of hours of seated meditation interspersed with exercise periods of running around the periphery of hall. As the physical wear and tear is extensive on these occasions, the participants are allowed up to four (or five) small meals a day. The four main meal-times are:
1) Early congee
2) Noon congee
3) Afternoon congee (leftover from the noon meal)
4) 8pm - steam buns or congee – referred to as ‘release (from) participation’ meal.
Under the old system (from India), monks had to beg for food, but there was no guarantee that they would be given food that they could eat before noon, especially if they lived in remote areas. The monastics were dependent upon the laity for support. This meant that the monastics entered and left the temple (and meditation hall) at different times, and meal-times were irregular. This is why Ch’an Master Baizhang formulated a clear monastic rule to regulate the daily routine of monks and nuns. He stated, ‘Just before noon, have mid-day rice with the congregation. Just before evening, have late congee with the congregation. However, it is better only to eat food at the allotted time (before noon). Stay in the temple at night – the next day have food around noon – that is permitted.’ Even in Baizhang’s day, Buddhist monastics found it difficult to only eat before noon. With regards to Chinese Buddhist monastics who cannot keep the regulation by only eating before noon, how should the idea of a ‘medicine meal’ be applied so as to keep their minds sharp? The great Ming Dynasty master known as Lianchi, in the book entitled ‘Synopsis of Novice Discipline’ stated, ‘Violation of the Buddha’s instruction must be understood to be a matter of great shame in life. The mind (and body) can become infected by hungry ghosts, and permeated by sadness. Food will be in short supply, of bad quality and of infrequent supply.’ This demonstrates that a Buddhist monastic who eats the medicine meal ‘after noon’, must always bear in-mind the danger of breaking the rules, and maintain a sense of appropriate shame, and compassion.
Founding Patriarch of Correct Discipline in the Kitchen
Originally, Chinese Buddhist monastics had to prepare and cook their own food. This led over-time to the emergence of different kinds of masters who supervised the various aspects of food preparation in the kitchen, and the serving of food in the dining hall. The following are Baizhang’s rules and regulations regarding how these masters should behave:
1) Duty Master: is responsible for the general well-being of the entire community in the temple or monastery. This position is the second most powerful master – only behind that of the abbot. He ensures that all the duty-roles are fulfilled by suitable monks (see below), and that there is an adequate supply of vegetables, soup and rice at all times.
2) Rice Chief: is responsible for the preparing and cooking of rice and congee.
3) Discipline Chief: is responsible for organising all required labour in the dining hall.
4) Fire Chief: is responsible for the fire burning beneath the cooking-pot.
5) Water Chief: is responsible for the water supply in the great hall, and every other hall in the temple. Each vat must be kept full of clean water.
6) Vegetable Chief is responsible for cleaning and cooking the vegetables.
7) Barrel Chief: is responsible for cleaning the rice barrels in the dining hall after every meal.
8) Mill Chief: is responsible for grinding wheat and rice to make tofu.
Other posts include Coal Chief, Tea Chief, and Pot Chief, for instance, but as each temple has a different setting and location, the types of masters often vary due to the difference in local conditions.
The Chinese Buddhist tradition of situating temples and monasteries in remote areas, has a strict set of regulations for ordering the preparation, cooking, serving, cleaning, and supplying of food and water. The duties for each master are clearly explained and established, and there is no excuse for incorrect behaviour surrounding meal-times in the temples and monasteries. Therefore it is said, ‘The true value of a grain of rice should be clearly understood… Even more so when consideration is given to feeding many mouths. Is the rice sour or salty? Does it smell fragrant? Has it been prepared and cooked properly? Do not behave in a careless or indiscreet manner, so that the mind can always be nourished… When rice is served no mistakes should be made.’ As all Buddhist monastics are required to follow the precepts, the law masters must set a good example, act selflessly, and exercise the spirit of giving to everyone in the community without exception. The duties of these masters are very important for the welfare of the entire community, and must be performed with the utmost care and attention. In ancient times, many great masters and patriarchs occupied the role of duty master (and other positions) without hesitation. For instance, Ch’an Master Xue Feng was once the rice chief, whilst Ch’an Master Wei Yang was once the duty master… ‘There is no function a duty master cannot perform for the community, this is because carrying water and fetching firewood are nothing but the practice of (profound) Buddhist ritual. De-husking and grinding rice is not a problem – whatever is required – it must be done!’ Although it is true that Chinese Buddhist monastics no longer go out of the temple to beg, it is also true that the chiefs of the kitchen – under guidance of the duty-distributor master – selflessly serve the monastic community and ensure its safety and sustainability. In this regard, the network of dedicated monks and nuns who perform these duties in the temples and monasteries of China, have developed one of the best spiritual-cooperating mechanisms in the world.
©opyright: Adrian Chan-Wyles (ShiDaDao) 2015.
Original Chinese language Source Article:
http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_4d5b41b30102dzxo.html
漫談佛教的齋飯
一般人每日塵勞奔忙,最低限度的目標便是求得衣食溫飽,如果能吃飽穿暖後,最好還能吃得好,穿出地位。而對出家僧人而言,只是以食物治療饑病,滋養色身,長養慧命,不可恣意貪食...
飲食,是生物維系色身的要件之一。一般人每日塵勞奔忙,最低限度的目標便是求得衣食溫飽,如果能吃飽穿暖後,最好還能吃得好,穿出地位;對出家僧人而言,要能專心辦道,首先也是必須安頓色身,但佛陀教導比丘將食物視爲“藥”,只是以食物治療饑病,滋養色身,長養慧命,不可恣意貪食。
原始佛教時的僧人以乞食爲生,在律藏中關于“食”的規定非常多,都是佛陀依著當時的情境而加以制定的。佛教傳入中國後,爲適應民情風俗,中國僧人食物的來源、形式與內容,就産生了另一番新的風貌。
農禅生活自耕自食
佛世時,比丘們身披袈裟,手持著缽,四處乞食遊化,只有在雨季裏,才回到精舍或固定的一處結夏安居,此時不再出外托缽。對僧人而言,“乞食”蘊涵著深遠的意義──一方面是降伏驕慢,不貪美味,毫無選擇,專心修道;另一方面則是藉著乞食因緣與居士接觸,給予布施種福田、說法的機會。所以,乞食是僧人的正命,墾土掘地、種植蔬果以致傷害生命,這是原始佛教所不許的。
佛教初傳中土,中國沙門仍然堅守著佛陀的遺教,後來僧人逐漸放棄托缽乞食的方式,最早可見的記錄是東晉安帝義熙元年(西元四○五年)道恒的《釋駁論》中指出當時沙門“或墾殖田圃,與農夫齊流”,可知當時僧人已開始耕種了。
爲什麽中國僧人無法再過乞食的生活呢?這與中國的民情及僧團在中國的發展有關。
在中國的文化裏,“乞討”是卑賤的行爲,何況在普遍重視勞動的大社會,僧人乞食,被視爲“不事勞作,不事生産”,難以獲得社會大衆的認同與尊敬;其次僧團人數不斷增加擴大,寺院又位處偏遠,端賴托缽乞食有實質的困難。在此情況下,自南北朝以降,皇室貴族以賜田與舍田的方式供養僧人,不再直接布施飲食;相對地,僧團也必須自行組織生産的方式,以便自給自足。
到唐朝時,馬祖大師創建叢林,百丈禅師立下清規,正式開啓中國僧伽生活新型態,僧人開始過著“晝而農、夜而禅”自耕自食的農禅生活,百丈禅師“一日不作,一日不食”身體力行的高風亮節,成爲後代僧人效法的榜樣,在作務中修行也成爲僧人奉行不渝的信念。
菜根香,佛門悲心長
比之原始佛教的飲食,中國佛教最突顯的是“素食”。在佛世時,僧人既是乞食,居士供養什麽,比丘就接受什麽,因此佛陀並未禁止僧人食肉,除了象肉、馬肉、龍肉、人肉不得吃,其余肉類,只要不見殺、不聞殺、不爲我殺(三淨肉),皆可接受(見四分律)。
而大乘佛教是嚴禁肉食的,《梵網經菩薩戒本》即指出“不得食一切衆生肉,食肉得無量罪”;《涅盤經》中也說“食肉者,斷大慈種”。以慈心戒殺素食,正是悲憫衆生、長養大乘慈悲的表現。
中國僧人素食也和笃信大乘佛教的梁武帝有莫大的關系。公元五一一年梁武帝召集諸沙門立誓永斷酒肉,並以法令公告,違者嚴懲。由于帝王的推動,加上中國寺院自耕自食,廣大的莊園提供素食來源,這項教團改革,收到極大的成效,直至今日中國佛教僧團仍堅行素食。
以往的寺院經濟普遍貧困,加以僧人勤儉,腌醬特多,每日齋飯,除中午一餐吃飯外,多半食粥,佐以陳年腌菜。現今台灣拜經濟成長之福,僧人的飲食也隨著轉變,諸如素食人口快速增多,素食館相繼設立,素食制成品種類多樣化了。近幾年更刮起回歸自然之風,清淡的生食、素食自然成了新時代的寵兒,從健康的角度來看,它已漸漸脫離了宗教的素食了。
二時過堂食存五觀
“過堂”,也是中國叢林中特有的儀制,它在僧伽生活中占有重要的地位,早、午齋的過堂,是出家人五堂功課中的兩堂。
當雲板響起,大衆搭衣魚貫進入五觀堂,依序就坐,向上問訊後維那起腔,大衆齊唱“供養偈”,供養十方三世一切諸佛,面對充饑養身的食物時,僧人再度提醒自己,不忘上求佛道、下化衆生,要追隨先聖先賢。早齋唱“粥有十利,饒益行人,果報無邊,究竟常樂。”午齋則唱“三德六味,供佛及僧…… 若飯食時,當願衆生,禅悅爲食,法喜充滿。”
接著維那師呼僧跋後,大衆便開始用齋。叢林過堂多使用碗盤,少數寺院使用缽,碗盤皆有一定位置,不得恣意擺放,添湯加菜由行堂服務,也不得出聲、恣動。在飯食中須心存五觀(一、計功多少,量彼來處;二、忖己德行,全缺應供;三、防心離過,貪等爲宗;四、正事良藥,爲療形枯;五、爲成道業,方受此食。)並攝心用功,或持佛名號或參“吃飯的是誰”。末了,大衆唱結齋偈“…… 所謂布施者,必獲其利益…… 當願衆生,所作皆辦,具諸佛法”,感念信施護持,回向衆生皆得圓滿。
整個過堂是一個安靜的用食過程,住持和尚如有事便會在此時向大衆宣布,稱爲“表堂”。每月初一、十五或特殊節日便加菜勞衆,或有居士齋僧布施也加菜。
中國佛寺通常在大殿外右側會設個小小的施食台,體恤饑困的衆生。它是根據佛經中“曠野鬼神衆”及“羅刹鬼子母”的典故而來,大衆過堂時,都由一僧人負責出食,將七粒米或指甲許的面條,透過觀想及大衆的加持,施食給衆生,願他們同得飽滿並去除悭貪。
簡樸的叢林用齋,象征的是高遠的智慧與寬廣的情懷。
持午不易提供藥石
佛制僧人日中一食、過午不食,中唐以前中國僧人皆嚴格持午,漸漸地,也如同乞食一般,經過時空的演變、適應而被放棄了。因爲中國地理的南北幅員廣闊,加上僧人的自耕自食,勞動量大,僧人終于放棄傳統的佛制,寺院正式提供晚餐,稱“藥石”,藥石皆吃粥,也稱“晚粥”。
而禅堂禅七期間,整日皆有活動,打坐、跑香交替用功,體力耗損甚巨,所以一日用餐達四、五次,除早粥、午飯外,下午吃午粥(點心粥),晚上八點還吃一餐,也是吃粥或饅頭,稱爲“放參”。
另外,還有出外求法的行腳僧,在前不著村,後不著店的因緣下,吃飯時間和食物沒有保障,不受過午不食的限制,可以說什麽時候得到食物,就什麽時候吃,不過,當他們到禅堂挂單時,就必須隨衆,百丈清規附旦過堂規中,就針對雲水僧這麽規定:“一近午到,午飯隨衆;近晚到,晚粥隨衆;時過始到,補吃;晚到一宿,次日午飯即行。”
中國僧人既不能嚴持過午不食戒,須用何種心態用藥石呢?明朝蓮池大師所著的《沙彌律儀要略》提到“必也知違佛制,生大慚愧,念餓鬼苦,常行悲濟,不多食、不美食、不安意食”,說明了僧人用藥石時須心存警惕,具足慚愧和慈悲。
香積廚中出祖師
中國僧人必須自行炊煮,負責僧衆飲食的執事人便因應出現了,在百丈清規中記載了以下的執事:
一、典座:職掌大衆齋粥一切供養。
二、飯頭:負責煮粥飯。
三、行頭:于齋堂中執勞役。
四、火頭:負責燒飯鍋。
五、水頭:負責大寮茶房及各堂缸水,常令盈滿清潔。
六、菜頭:負責煮菜。
七、桶頭:負責洗淨齋堂菜桶、飯桶。
八、磨頭:負責磨米麥、作豆腐。
其他尚有炭頭、茶頭、鍋頭不等,各寺院因時因地而設,並不統一。
中國寺院叢林並有嚴格的廚房規約、庫房規約,注明各執事的職掌及應具備的知見,如“寸薪粒米當知來處之艱難……更當思調和夫衆口,酸鹹適味、香軟得宜,慎重烹饪,勿生輕忽,以供養爲懷……粥飯三時,不得一朝失誤……”作爲僧人領執的指南,在執事中培養奉獻喜舍的精神,更要反觀自己的用心處。因此古來許多偉大的祖師皆出自大寮(廚房),如雪峰禅師當過飯頭,沩仰禅師當過典座……“莫謂執事之外,更無所營,須知運水搬柴,無非佛事;舂米作飯,正好參求。”雖然中國僧人不再出外乞食,卻在執事,尤其大寮執事中,互相護持,滋養色身、慧命,開辟了另一個成就道業的最佳壇城。